Kościół NMP w Lubece jako architektoniczny wyraz kultury hanzeatyckiej

2010

Nr 2(28)

Agata Rusnak-Kozłowska*

Blessed Virgin Mary Church in Lübeck

as an architectonic expression of Hanseatic culture

The medieval culture of German Baltic Front was de-

termined mainly by a Hanseatic community which was

established at the end of the 12

century and which at the

beginning associated merchants and later even the whole

cities. The Hansa, which represented a sort of a prototype

of today’s European Union, constituted a unique organi-

sation whose inuence on the political, economical and

social situation of the discussed region cannot be over-

estimated. It also performed a culture-producing role and

this article attempts to present the inuence it had on the

architecture of this region on the example of one of the

most important building achievements of southern Ger-

many – Blessed Virgin Mary Church in Lübeck.

The Hanseatic League has its origins in the late 12

century when German merchants began their economic

expansion in the Baltic Sea basin. Soon, the German

merchants who periodically visited Gotland

[2] were ac-

companied by other merchants coming from the newly

founded cities on the east coast of the Baltic Sea and to-

gether they formed ‘universi Mercatorem Imperii Romani

Gotlandiam frequentantes’[9]

. In the course of time, the

merchants started trade exploration of other Baltic region

countries and of those situated by the Northern Sea [8]

Representatives, who were chosen in the particular cen-

Wrocław University of Technology, Institute of History of Art.

Dollinger P. Dzieje Hanzy XII–XVII w.,Warszawa 1997, p. 35.

Samsonowicz H., Późne średniowiecze miast nadbałtyckich. Studia

nad dziejami hanzy nad Bałtykiem w XIV–XV w., Warszawa 1968, p. 20.

Historians connect the trade expansion of German merchants with

German colonisation on the East, the so called ‘Drang nach Osten’. On

the one hand, the reason of colonisation was a desire to subordinate the

regions on the east side of the River Elbe, which were still consider-

ably pagan at the beginning of the 12

century and on the other hand,

a necessity to annex new terrains caused by overpopulation of western

Germany and excessive plotting of lands given by Landlords as well as

through the liberation of peasants. This also caused immigration of set-

tlers to the regions of Holstein and Brandenburg, which was accompanied

by evangelisation mission and setting up merchant centres. Samsono-

wicz H., Hanza władczyni mórz, Warszawa 1958, p. 13.

tres, wielded court power and if necessary they represent-

ed merchants before the town authorities where they held

their ofces. The 13

century brought a gradual transfor-

mation of the merchant community into the community

of towns. This type of initiatives took place quite often in

Medieval Europe, however, no other merchant union or

town centre lasted for such a long time or got such a posi-

tion like the Hansa. For many years, the system, which

seemed to be purely commercial, became a serious eco-

nomic and political partner which had enough power to

impose blockades, declare wars, conclude international

treaties and to force other contemporary countries to

respect its laws and interests. Since the 13

century the

Hansa monopolised trade along the big axis Novgorod–

Tallinn–Lübeck–Hamburg–London, it conducted trade

with southern Germany and Italy and its ships travelled

even to France, Spain and Portugal. In the period of the

most remarkable development, which took place in the

century, about 150 towns belonged to the Hansa. In

the context of the position that the Hansa had in medieval

Europe, it is really astonishing when we notice that it had

no legal status, ofce workers, it did not posses its own

nancial means, neither the eet nor the army and it did

not have relative sovereignty as its members came under

the law of local feudalists [1]

. The purpose of establish-

ing the Hansa and its driving force was the need to defend

the rights of its merchants abroad and to develop trade.

Solidarity of the Hansa’s members ensured its existence

during the next centuries.

The most important centre of the Hanseatic commu-

nity was Lübeck whose location took place as a result of

the earl of Holstein Adolf II’s decision concerning the

nal pacication of pagan Obotrites

. For that purpose,

he brought settlers from Holland and Flanders and set

Dollinger P., op. cit., p. 11.

Holm W., Lübeck, die freie und Hanse Stadt, Leipzig 1900, p. 16.

60 Agata Rusnak-Kozłowska

up a merchant centre near the old settlement of Obotrites

called Old Lübeck

. The location in 1158 probably in-

cluded a territory around a big, rectangular market square

which was surrounded with stands and cloth halls in the

north–east corner where the town hall was supposed to

be built soon

. In 1160 the seat of the bishop was moved

to Lübeck and construction works on two churches were

started – a cathedral and Marienkirche. During the next

years, Lübeck was granted numerous privileges conrmed

by Frederick I Barbarossa and in 1226 Frederick II con-

ferred on the town ‘civitas Imperii’ dignity

. This dignity

was not conferred on any other town situated beyond the

River Elbe, which increased Lübeck prestige and in con-

nection with its growing material power predestined this

town to become a leader of Hanseatic trade which started

to develop at that time [4].

Its location by the River Trava 20 km from the sea and 50 km from

Hamburg seemed particularly benecial. The distance from the coastline

protected a newly set up town from pirates’ attacks and at the same time

the navigable Trava made it possible for ships to sail to the interior of the

land. The vicinity of Hamburg enabled to set up a land route thanks to

which it was possible to direct trade further to the west with the avoidance

of sailing on the River Sund.

The market square was probably situated between the district around

the duke’s castle in the north and the church district in the south, ibidem,

pp. 17–18.

Ibidem, pp. 19–21.

In the Baltic Sea area civilisation processes occurred

basically in different conditions than it was the case be-

fore in Western Europe. These processes started at the

time of the crisis of the scholastic philosophy which had

formed the model of the Western Europe medieval cul-

ture. Also, the ourishing trade contributed to the growth

of self-awareness of town communities and led to the

creation of the democratic middle-class culture. The edu-

cated town communities expressed their claims and ambi-

tions in form of realisations of secular architecture as well

as sacral architecture. The second half of the 13

century

brings about the need to build new churches adapted for

gatherings of a big town community. Traditional forms of

a transept basilica did not seem much attractive consider-

ing a limited space for the laity and a feudal system of

power which was manifested in this type of structures.

Because of these reasons, the investors’ attention was con-

centrated on the hall space which was already developed

and functioned within smaller churches whose standard-

ised height and integrated naves corresponded with the

functional needs of commune councils as well as with the

requirements of the appropriate representation.

Rebuilding of the Blessed Virgin Mary Church in

Lübeck, as a result of which a traditional vaulted Roman

basilica of the feudal phase was transformed into a hall

church, became an unusually signicant impulse in the de-

velopment of hall architecture of the Baltic area. At least

two hypotheses appear in relation to the genesis of the hall

type in the architecture of northern Germany. The hall type

was earlier introduced in the south of Germany in Hesse

along with St. Elisabeth Church in Magburg and Cistercian

Church in Haina. According to Teresa Mrocz ko, a group of

hall churches on the basilica plan, which originates from the

church in Haina, shows the way of adaptation of the French

classical Gothic forms within a local German building tradi-

tion. The Roman combined system was replaced by a Goth-

ic arrangement of bays called traveé (the nave rectangular

in form of squares of aisles) and with this division, which

originates from France, Hesse builders connected the hall

arrangement which was taken from Westphalia traditions

(a collegiate church in Herford, the cathedral body in Pad-

erborn) [6]

. The created hybrid could be transported from

the territories of Hesse to the Baltic area. On the other hand,

the second concept suggests that in the territory of northern

Germany the hall shape was introduced as an independent

church space along with a group of churches originating

from the nine-eld hall in Gadebusch. The other hypoth-

esis seems more probable in the case of the Blessed Virgin

Mary Church in Lübeck because the arrangement of bays

was not based on the fully produced traveé system (bays of

aisles had a plan of the rectangular situated longitudinally

to the church axis). Undoubtedly, choosing a new spatial

form constituted the way of manifesting political and so-

cial aspirations which were expressed in this way on the

architectural ground. The development and heightening of

the aisles, which used to be too narrow and less functional,

Mroczko T., Architektura gotycka na ziemi chełmińskiej, Warszawa

1980, p. 109.

Fig. 1. Blessed Virgin Mary Church in Lübeck

– view from north–west. Photo by author

Blessed Virgin Mary Church in Lübeck as an architectonic expression of Hanseatic culture 61

changed the traditional basilica form space adapting it for

the needs of the growing congregation [1]

We can reconstruct the form of this Gothic hall space

of the Lübeck church thanks to rst of all architectural rel-

ics which are preserved in the area of southern walls. They

show that the walls of the pedestal storey were arranged in

each bay with two ogival niches and in each of them a big

circular window was placed. A little higher, at the height

of the upper window sills of the aisles, there was a gallery

around the whole church interior. According to Jarzewicz,

this system roots date to the Roman Normand architecture,

while in Lübeck it appeared thanks to the late-Roman ca-

thedral in Bremen which was the seat of archdiocese – the

superior of Lübeck diocese [5]

. Mroczko, while analyzing

Böker H.J., Die Mittelalterliche Backsteinarchitektur Norddeutsch-

lands, Darmstadt 1988, p. 93.

Jarzewicz J., Gotycka architektura Nowej Marchii. Budownictwo

sakralne w okresie Askańczyków i Wittelsbachów, Poznań 2000, p. 140.

the origins of this solution, points out that the two-storey

wall arrangement was based on the French ground through

reduction or fusion of three-storey solutions consisting in

getting rid of the triforium zone or connecting it with the

under-window zone [6]

. The two-storey system with the

under-window gallery and a by-pass on the rst oor situ-

ated in the deep arcade window interiors with ogival pas-

sages in wall intra-window pillars was widely used from

circa 1225 on the territories of southern and central Ger-

many. It is quite probable that the process of transmitting

this form was possible thanks to trade contacts of Hanseatic

merchants who, apart from penetration of the Baltic Sea ba-

sin, were also interested in the regions of middle and south-

ern Germany using river and land trade routes.

Circular arches of the vault led from wall pillars and

they were connected with each other in the space between

Mroczko T., op. cit., pp. 49, 173.

Fig. 2. Blessed Virgin Mary

Church in Lübeck – plan, source:

http://www.kirchengucker.de

/2007/05/13/marienkirche-in-

-lubeck dated 15.11.2010

Fig. 3. Blessed Virgin Mary

Church in Lübeck – view

of the choir from south–east.

Photo by author

62 Agata Rusnak-Kozłowska

pillars forming in this way a graduated arrangement of the

wall, which reduced the massive structure of the walls.

The hall rebuilding also included the transept as well as

the root of the choir gallery. In the place of the demol-

ished southern transept front a porch was built whose

construction was completed in 1270, which is conrmed

by the date of consecrating the altar and the burial which

took place there. Its eastern gable with a three-level form

articulated with blind windows was preserved under the

roof in the porch of the mayor chapel which was built

later at the eastern side. The original porch probably had

a crossed and ribbed vault, however, when a new by-

pass choir gallery with a basilica form was built, the re-

organisation of its space and introduction of pillars into

the interior, which divided it into two bays, took place.

The name of the whole architectural trend – Viertelstab

gotik – originates from the application of circular shaped

stones in the window splayed embrasures and also in

the area of the porch vaults. Their sizes, which were in

accordance with the size of normal bricks, made it pos-

sible to achieve a homogenous course of the pattern in

the pillar proles and window frames which resulted in

limiting the number of harmonised shaped stones in pil-

lars. Moreover, their composition was a sign of mature

– Gothic stylistic forms which stood in opposition to ex-

plicitly separated architectural elements of the Roman

buildings.

The hall stage of the church rebuilding can also be

seen in the area of the façade. The core of the present two-

tower western massif, which comprises the central part

of the massif up to the height of the rst oor, consti-

tutes the remaining of the original one-tower organisation

of the façade with the porch in the basement opened to

the interior of the nave. In the 14

century the existing

development was already accomplished by means of the

gable and in this way it was connected with the system of

two towers situated on the sides [1]

. The tower massif,

which was built in the western bay of the body, constitutes

a signicant distinguishing feature of sacral buildings in

the regions of the Baltic area. Its form originates from

a feudal residential tower (kamenate), from defensive

functions which churches performed during the rst stage

of functioning as well as from transformations which

Carolingian westwork underwent. Rectangular massifs

(with one or two towers) as well as the massifs founded

on the plan similar to the square with a single tower with

a basement opened with two or three arcades and a feudal

gallery or worship chapel situated on the higher oor ap-

peared as a result of the westwork reduction. The original

military functions of the tower massif, with the increase

of political autonomy and economic power of towns,

were replaced by symbolic functions. The tower dominat-

ing over the city, where important town documents were

kept and sessions of the city council took place on the

upper oor – until town halls were built – was treated

as a symbol of independence and power of the middle

class [5]

Unfortunately, the representative form of the hall

church turned out to be insufcient for the manifesta-

tion of middle class ideas of independence, autonomy

and democracy. The new concept was not realized until

the end and already in the course of its implementation

– probably in about 1280 – it was again replaced by the

basilica plan which referred to the Gothic form of a ca-

thedral basilica. Trade contacts with towns of Flanders,

Westphalia and Rhineland allowed familiarization with

the concept of the cathedral church which developed

since the 12

century in towns of Ile–de–France and later

it was accepted in the territories neighbouring France.

Lübeck also used this concept; however, this distinguish-

ing form of the French cathedral was used while erecting

the city parish church but the whole form was lled with

different meaningful elements. Only a pair of pillars situ-

ated on the border of the choir and body was left from

the Roman basilica, while in the designed hall a part of

surrounding walls was used, which determined the pro-

portions of the new church. Generally, the Gothic rebuild-

ing took place in two most important stages. The rst

stage comprised the choir, while the other referred to the

body.

A new form of the choir included three crosswise elon-

gated polygonal chapels with 5/8 closure and surrounded

Böker H.J., op. cit., pp. 94–95.

In the area of southern Germany, Westphalia was the most sig-

nicant part; a block tower put by the western façade was a very typical

solution there. Jarzewicz J., op. cit., pp. 58–61.

Fig. 4. Blessed Virgin Mary Church in Lübeck

– view of the body and choir. Photo by author

Blessed Virgin Mary Church in Lübeck as an architectonic expression of Hanseatic culture 63

by ambit and ring. The particular character of the Blessed

Virgin Mary Church consists in xing the ring in three

sides beyond the chapels by-pass space – along with the

corresponding ambit bays they have cross-ribbed vaults.

In this way a sort of standardisation and spatial uniformity

were achieved, while a free ow of space differed from

a separated series of chapels of French Gothic cathedrals

or the Köln cathedral [1]

Cathedral – Gothic model of orientation was seen in

the interior, particularly in the cross-section of pillars

which included a dense series of pear proles. The pillar

core with a square cross-section can only be seen in the

corners. Above the high zone of arcades in a thin mem-

brane of walls additionally reduced by blend panels, there

is a basilica zone of upper windows which are supported

from the outside by open ying buttresses. Resignation

from a triforium, determined a two-storey structure of the

internal choir walls. Above the arcade oor – thanks to

the differentiated width of walls – a surrounding porch

was introduced, which led through the internal wall pillars

and which is separated from the choir space with a trac-

ery balustrade with articulated pinnacles. It presents an

interesting procedure of introducing a motif, which was

used in the external structure so far, into the interior of

the building. Narrow supporting vault columns (German:

Dienst), which are placed at the entire height of the pillars,

decide about a vertical connection of two storeys situated

one above the other.

The Virgin Mary choir naturally transformed the ca-

thedral – Gothic model by converting its complex formal

expression into the brick material. A spatial relation of

chapels with the by-pass bays can be found in the north

French and Dutch architecture in numerous examples dat-

ing back to the early Gothic period. The starting point of

the series is the choir of Soissons cathedral completed in

Böker H.J., op. cit., p. 140.

1212, with references to the cathedral in Bayonne built

in 1213 and Quimper in Brittany built in 1239. Another

aspect which proves the inspiration with the Quimper so-

lution is a similar wall organization with a gallery which

goes above the triforium around the entire interior. How-

ever, there are no similarities to linear proles of Lübeck

choir arcades in Quimper. This suggests referring to a dif-

ferent formal tradition, perhaps to choir arcades of Köln

cathedral, whose construction started in 1248, where pear

proles interspersed with grooves and we can observe

a tendency for standardization consisting in the connec-

tion of a particular system of single or grouped in three or

ve narrow supporting columns with their vault function.

The standardization of the form repertoire constituted

a signicant factor which made it possible to transfer this

system into the brick material without the necessity to use

differentiated brick shaped stones. However, in the cathe-

dral choir in Köln there are no similarities to the applied

in Lübeck pillar of disk arcs proles directed downwards

and interrupted only by a narrow capital zone band. This

still belonged to the phase of experiments and appeared

in the sacristy of Köln cathedral in 1277

. The cathedral

sacristy solution was transferred to the Utrecht cathedral

choir which showed a conceptual dependency on the Köln

building, which can be seen in the choir closure (7/12).

On the other hand, the Lübeck church is connected with

Utrecht by the integration of by-pass chapel spaces with

its bays. Uniformity of the internal choir in the Lübeck

church caused a basic modication of Köln and Utrecht

scheme. Connections with Köln were further proved by

capitals and narrow supporting columns (Dienst) made

in lime stone with their naturalistic presentation of leaf

forms. However, the window tracery with a simple form

This motif shall be used, in the form deprived of the capital turn-

ing point, in the hall space of the ground storey of the cathedral southern

tower; its preserved plan dates back to 1290. Ibidem, p. 142.

Fig. 5. Blessed Virgin Mary

Church in Lübeck – view

of the choir from the northern

side. Photo by author

64 Agata Rusnak-Kozłowska

of lancet arches originates from the spirit of brick archi-

tecture

The conrmed relations between the choir of Blessed

Virgin Mary Church in Lübeck and the sacristy of the

Köln cathedral consecrated in 1277 indicate that the con-

struction works on the Lübeck choir were started in 1280.

In 1277 there was a dispute between the city council and

the cathedral chapter concerning the patronage of the par-

ish church, which was ended in 1286 by the decision on

the city patronage. This dispute might have been the rea-

son why the church choir was given the form which re-

ferred to the architectural tradition of Gothic cathedrals by

manifesting the position and claims of the powerful city

commune

. The connections of the church with the city

commune were mentioned explicitly again in circa 1390

when the city council commissioned the construction of

a chapel for their own purposes, Bürgermeisterkapelle, in

the southern part of the city. It was here that the city coun-

cilors were ofcially received into ofce and in the chapel

upper storey a strong room was located where the ofcial

city documents were kept: charters, certicates of privi-

leges and contracts. This part of the church is the property

of the city until today [3]

Ibidem, pp. 140–143.

Ibidem, p. 144.

Enns A.B, Stiebeling H., Lübeck. Ein Führer durch die Bau- und

Kunstdenkmäler der Hansestadt, Lübeck 1999, p. 52.

The trading activity supported by the Hansa concen-

trated mainly on merchant’s entrepreneurship and it intro-

duced democratic social relations at the same time. This

contributed to the formation of middle-class self-aware-

ness and a sense of identity of city commune members.

The need for manifesting new social ideas was reected

in the employment of the architectonic forms associ-

ated with highly artistic types of sacral architecture. The

employment of the hall form in order to ensure enough

space for the city congregation and the subsequent intro-

duction of the cathedral choir in the basilica concept in-

creased the prestige and dignied the construction of the

most important church of the city commune. The fact that

the city parish was given cathedral forms illustrates vis-

ibly the increasing power of the middle class. Transposi-

tion of the architectonic elements from France, Flanders,

Rhineland or Westphalia could take place thanks to the

wide trading contacts that were already possible at that

time.

Trade routes and merchant contacts in the Middle

Ages performed the role which went far beyond a given

economic zone. The vast majority of the medieval Eu-

rope inhabitants were limited in their peregrinations to

their immediate surroundings, while religious missions,

pilgrimages or diplomatic trips were not sufcient for

the purpose of gaining knowledge about other territories.

Therefore, the development of trade and nancial con-

tacts provided opportunities to cross borders, both those

physical and those connected with awareness, as well as

it enabled establishing contacts with other centres. Ships

and carts carried material goods, people and widely un-

derstood civilization ideas, in this way indirectly fulll-

ing a culture-producing role. Although it was not their

main goal, the merchants contributed to shape Europe’s

face as a ‘cultural entirety – not uniform but internally

communicative’ [7]

. The efciency of this method of

transfer of architectural concepts is evidenced by the fact

that the hall type church rst and next the basilica type

equipped with the cathedral choir were popularized as

a city church model in the areas of the southern Baltic

coast. The same transformation as it was in the case of

the Blessed Virgin Mary Church in Lübeck were later

observed in the case of St James’s Church in Stralsund.

The hall churches with the forms which were dependent

on the Lübeck solution appear not only in the territory of

Mecklenburg but also in Old Margraviate of Brandenburg

and Western Pomerania, while the cathedral choir domi-

nated the architectural expression of churches in Stral-

sund, Rostock and Wismar and even a Cistercian church

in Doberan. Due to the political and economical position

of Lübeck, which resulted rst of all from its leading role

in the Hanseatic League and obtaining middle-class liber-

ties, the Blessed Virgin Mary Church in Lübeck became

a model church solution and it dominated over the archi-

tectural landscape of the medieval cities of the Baltic Sea

region.

Myśliwski G., Wrocław w przestrzeni gospodarczej Europy (XIII

–XV w.) – centrum czy peryferie, Wrocław 2009, pp. 18–19.

Fig. 6. Blessed Virgin Mary Church in Lübeck – nave body.

Photo by author

Blessed Virgin Mary Church in Lübeck as an architectonic expression of Hanseatic culture 65

References

[1] Böker H.J., Die Mittelalterliche Backsteinarchitektur Norddeutsch-

lands, Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 1988.

[2] Dollinger P., Dzieje Hanzy XII–XVII w., Ocyna Wydawnicza Volu-

men, Niezależna Ocyna Wydawnicza, Warszawa 1997.

[3] Enns A.B, Stiebeling H., Lübeck. Ein Führer durch die Bau- und

Kunstdenkmäler der Hansestadt, Hansisches Verlagskontor H. Scheff-

ler, Lübeck 1999.

[4] Holm W., Lübeck, die freie und Hanse Stadt, Verlag von Velhagen

& Klasing, Bielefeld 1900.

[5] Jarzewicz J., Gotycka architektura Nowej Marchii. Budownictwo

sakralne w okresie Askańczyków i Wittelsbachów, Wydawnictwo

Poznańskiego Towarzystwa Przyjaciół Nauk, Poznań 2000.

[6] Mroczko T., Architektura gotycka na ziemi chełmińskiej, Państwowe

Wydawnictwo Naukowe, Warszawa 1980.

[7] Myśliwski G., Wrocław w przestrzeni gospodarczej Europy

(XIII–XV w.) – centrum czy peryferie, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu

Wrocławskiego, Wrocław 2009.

[8] Samsonowicz H., Hanza władczyni mórz, Książka i Wiedza, War-

szawa 1958.

[9] Samsonowicz H., Późne średniowiecze miast nadbałtyckich. Studia

nad dziejami hanzy nad Bałtykiem w XIV–XV w., Państwowe Wy-

dawnictwo Naukowe, Warszawa 1968.

[10] http://www.kirchengucker.de/2007/05/13/marienkirche-in-lubeck

dated 15.11.2010.

Kościół NMP w Lubece jako architektoniczny wyraz kultury hanzeatyckiej

Artykuł zainspirowany został fenomenem Hanzy, której działalność

zdeterminowała oblicze ekonomiczno-polityczne i społeczne średnio-

wiecznych miast niemieckiego Niżu Nadbałtyckiego. Aczkolwiek dzia-

łalność Hanzy koncentrowała się na sferze wymiany handlowej, dała ona

również impuls dla wykształcenia się samoświadomości mieszczańskiej.

Tym samym wywarła ona wpływ na architekturę miast płn. Niemiec,

która zaczęła stanowić obszar manifestacji roszczeń rosnącego w siłę

mieszczaństwa, zarówno w obrębie budowli świeckich, jak i sakralnych.

Celem artykułu jest wskazanie na przykładzie kościoła NMP w Lubece do

jakich form architektonicznych sięgnięto w celu wyrażenia hanzeatyckich

dążeń polityczno-społecznych. W związku z tym kolejne części artykułu

poświęcone zostały prezentacji istoty organizacji hanzeatyckiej, wska-

zaniu uwarunkowań polityczno-społecznych średniowiecznej Lubeki,

omówieniu architektury kościoła NMP i analizie jej wyrazu stylistyczno-

formalnego w kontekście kultury hanzeatyckiej. W podsumowaniu podjęta

została również kwestia na ile rozwiązanie wprowadzone na gruncie

kościoła mariackiego w Lubece stało się nośnym i atrakcyjnym wzorcem

dla innych miast hanzeatyckich, określając pejzaż architektoniczny tere-

nów niemieckiego Niżu Nadbałtyckiego. Tym samym artykuł podejmuje

próbę podjęcia kwestii kontekstu miejsca i czasu jako wyznaczników

kultury w architekturze.

Key words: Lübeck, Hanseatic culture Słowa kluczowe: Lubeka, kultura hanzeatycka

Kościół NMP w Lubece jako architektoniczny wyraz kultury hanzeatyckiej

Agata Rusnak-Kozłowska

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