Rekonstrukcja krajobrazu urbanistycznego z końca XIX i początku XX w. w historycznym centrum Bejrutu

Sebastian Wróblewski

doi:10.37190/arc220107

Streszczenie

Jedną z największych w skali światowej prac związanych z rekonstrukcją krajobrazu kulturowego miasta przeprowadzono w stolicy Libanu. Projekt przygotowany przez Solidere obejmował rekonstrukcję założenia przestrzennego po zniszczeniach powstałych w trakcie wojny domowej, najbardziej wartościowej pod względem urbanistycznym dzielnicy centralnej. W Bejrucie powstały nie tylko rekonstrukcje architektury przedwojennej, ale i współczesne obiekty architektoniczne dopasowane do specyficznej estetyki dzielnicy. Głównym założeniem artykułu jest prezentacja i ocena tych różnorodnych rozwiązań urbanistycznych i architektonicznych zastosowanych w Bejrucie w odniesieniu do współczesnej architektury odwołującej się do estetyki z końca XIX w. i art déco, osadzonej w zrekonstruowanej przestrzeni miejskiej oraz współczesnych rozwiązań detalu urbanistycznego. W badaniach skupiono się na zagadnieniach związanych z oceną architektury kontekstowej oraz rekonstrukcji i adaptacji obiektów w centralnych częściach miasta.

Słowa kluczowe:
article
bejrut
architektura
xix-w.
xx-w.
rekonstrukcja
urbanistyka

Podgląd pełnego artykułu jest możliwy wyłącznie na większych ekranach.

2022

1(69)

Sebastian Wróblewski*

The reconstruction of the late 19

century and early 20

century

urban landscape in Beirut historic centre

Introduction

One of the trends in modern urbanism and architec-

ture is a return to the Past for inspirations or direct solu-

tions. Especially in the cities destroyed by the cataclysms

of previous wars that revival stream, started in the early

1990s, is especially strong and going onwards with new

experi ences. The idea of reconstruction of the historical

centres has evolved since rst such attempts after World

War I (main reconstructions of the old towns were: Arras,

Ypres, Oudenraade, Soissons, etc. in the Western Europe-

an front, and Kalisz in Poland in Eastern European front).

After World War II once again the cities of Europe had

to be reconstructed and that phase of reconstructions post

World War II lasted till the beginning of the 1960s. The

vision of bringing back old cityscapes changed due to the

implementation of the Venice Charter for the Conserva-

tion and Restoration of Monuments and Sites in 1964, the

document with Modernist ideology which opposed the

reconstructions. The crisis of Modernist views, in which

the Originality was elevated over the Beauty and visible

failure of post-war Modernism realisations implemented

straight into the historical cores of the cities became obvi-

ous by the end of the 1980s. Since then, many cities recon-

structed its old town districts reviving the spirit of the Past

in terms of an urban plan carefully reconstructed on the

historical and archaeological basis and with architecture

inuenced by historical design composition. Usually the

urban plan reconstructions were limited to the post-Me-

dieval, historical cores of cities (in Germany: Stralsund,

Lubeck, Dresden, Frankfurt am Main etc. in Po land: El b

ląg, Szczecin, Głogów) but at the beginning of the 1990s,

also architecture and large districts of genesis in the 19

century design, destroyed in the 20

century, started to be

reconstructed, especially in larger cities (Berlin, Warsaw,

London). The main aim of this study is the presentation,

to the broader spectrum of readers, especially in Poland,

of dierent approaches to spatial and architectural designs

in the Lebanese capital – one of the largest of its kind

reconstructions of the 19–20

centuries districts, from the

2020s – architectural perspective

, assessment of the qual-

ity of modern designs in a reconstructed spatial plan, com-

parative studies with other similar urban plan reconstruc-

tions and design of modern contextual – architecture in

other cities’ reconstructed districts or public spaces from

the same period – the 19

and early 20

century.

Change of perspective – appreciation of

the 19

century urban plan. State of research

In the capital of Lebanon before the destroying blast of

2021, one of the globally largest works on reconstruction

of the historic landscape of the historical core of the city

were performed. Similar reconstructions of the urban pub-

lic spaces were also performed in other cities in Europe,

for example in Berlin or Warsaw, but not on such a large

scale or with a similar coherent vision of uniting histori-

The central area was described by Robert Saliba in [1] in terms of

evolution of urban frontages, with contemporary major works by Soli -

dere, including the renovation and modernization of interiors of pre-

served buildings and conservation of historic façades. Saliba’s works on

historic heritage of Beirut are the most important among local publica-

tions. Also Mary Felix article [2] from 2019, was one of rst articles on

the issue of contemporary architecture in historic centers. The case of the

Lebanese capital in terms of social (gentrication, protection of so called

“colonial heritage” etc.), legal (expropriations and resettlements) and ur-

ban planning issues (with regards to a religious point of view – Fig. 5 in

[3, p. 245]) has been discussed in many articles and books [4]–[7].

* ORCID: 0000000225748395. Faculty of Architecture, Wro-

cław University of Science and Technology, Poland, email: Sebastian.

wroblewski@pwr.edu.pl

DOI: 10.37190/arc220107

Published in open access. CC BY NC ND license

78 Sebastian Wróblewski

cal solutions with modernity as it was implemented in the

historic district of Beirut. The three capital cities: War-

saw, Berlin and Beirut have dierent approaches to the

– early 20

century reconstructions due to the varia-

ble factors. In each example, valuable experiences could

be derived in future. Of course economic, social, polit-

ical and even religious factors are important and in the

case of each city and those factors were analysed in many

forms and in a variety of scientic and popular articles.

But usually the factor of aesthetic quality or tting into

the local context of architecture was hardly mentioned. As

it was put in the Riham Nady quoted book Historic Cities

and Sacred Sites. Cultural Roots for Urban Futures

: The

regeneration of historic centres is not a luxury. However,

it is a part of a collective obligation to understand and

preserve history, tradition and cultural diversity to combat

a sense of transience and to attract tourists [8]. The ques-

tion of why not only the local inhabitants of the city for

whom the reconstruction is important for national or local

identity, tradition, history but also tourists gather in large

number in historic – the 19

century style areas and not

in Modernist or contemporary districts of historic cities

(even when those included “iconic” architecture), might

be explained, as one of the greatest contemporary philos-

ophers – Roger Scruton said – by a pursuit of Beauty [9].

The 19

century became in contemporary society associ-

ated with the epoch of elegance and beauty in architecture

and generally in cultural landscape of that age. Especially

Belle Epoque or Art Déco – times before the Great War

or from the interwar period – has become an archetype of

such image, and in the case of Beirut both periods con-

tributed much to the landscape of the city. The 19

cen-

tury architecture – even neglected, forgotten, covered in

patina or ruined might be perceived by people as more

beautiful, interesting, more “romantic” than “original”

contemporary Modernist architecture in the same state of

deterioration. Therefore a lot of the preserved 19

cen-

tury architecture is facing a period of revitalisation now,

and the original 19

century districts became fashionable

in dierent European (or European cultural circle) cities

(Kreuzberg in Berlin, Praga district in Warsaw). That’s

why since the 1990s many large scale reconstructions or

renovations of the 19

century districts and single build-

ings have been continued. The renovated or reconstructed

areas are becoming not only ourishing city spaces for the

inhabitants but also a sought after destination for tourists.

In Berlin most of the historical centre of the German

capital was reconstructed after the Unication of Ger-

many according to the 19

century urban plan with full

reconstruction of only a small number of individual archi-

tectural objects or their façades from the 19

century

which were reconstructed (including Alte Kommandan-

tur 2003 and at present the palace of the Prussian kings’

Stadtschloss – both these projects are not full reconstruc-

tions – some of the back or side façades are modern with

only rhythm of windows adopted to pre-20

century com-

Edited by Ismail Serageldin, Ephim Shluger and Joan Martin

Brown, World Bank Publications, [n.p.] 2001.

position) [10], [11]. Nowadays projects focus on recon-

structing the urban layout lled with new architecture

respecting only some of the layouts of the 19

-century

town planning such as development lines, subdivision,

solids with storeys, and to a lesser extent the composition

and colours of façades of tenement houses (Unter der Lin-

den and Gendarmenmarkt areas). Rhythm of façades and

scale are quite similar to the late 19

century solutions.

Detail is modern or reduced. Materials are basically tradi-

tional yet not exactly copied from previously used in his-

toric façades. Although some fully reconstructed façades

are also designed and placed in between the modern tene-

ment houses, the number of such designs is limited.

In Warsaw the historic Old Town was reconstructed

since the end of the World War II and followed conserva-

tion rules. Exact lines of frontages, reconstructed narrow

plots based on historical research of the pre-19

centu-

ry landscape of the city were brought backing Old Town

and New Town districts of Medieval origin. Designs of

every tenement house were given to teams of artists,

architects and builders. The details were carefully studied

and new decorations in cases where it was impossible to

fully reconstruct the original look were introduced (new

wall paintings, sgratos etc.). Reconstruction works of

the Medieval district were appreciated by the UNESCO

and the Old Town was placed on the World Heritage List

in 1980. Of course during the reconstruction of the dis-

trict according to the vision based on 18

century vedute

by painter Canaletto, some mistakes were made – e.g.,

destruction of the late 19

century architecture (which in

the mid1950s was not regarded as historical monument).

However, the rest of the capital landscape, shaped in the

century was not that fully reconstructed. The close

surroundings of the Old Town with the main axis–Streets:

Krakowskie Przedmieście and Nowy Świat which were

shaped before the 19

century as a main Royal way to the

city, were reconstructed also according to the 18

century

paintings, but the rest of public spaces organised in the fol-

lowing centuries were not, only some important architec-

ture was reconstructed, e.g. churches, National Opera, few

tenement houses which were partially destroyed during

World War II. First attempt to ll in the gaps and recon-

struct both the spatial plan or architecture from the 19

cen-

tury started after Poland became fully independent in the

early 1990s. The major works started in few areas such as

Theatre Square and Trzech Krzyży and Bankowy

Squares,

also there is a plan to reconstruct Piłsudski Square. In all

those city public spaces usually the 19

cen tury

palaces

(the Jabłonowski Palace or in the future the Saski Pal-

ace at Piłsudski Square) were or will be reconstructed in

historical design. The tenement houses were replaced by

modern designs (but there is a possible plan to reconstruct

a frontage at Piłsudski Square with historical façades of

tenement houses) but shaped according to the conserva-

tory rules in terms of scale, rhythm and composition of

façades, vertical shapes of windows etc.

Of all the aforementioned capitals, Beirut has the larg-

est scale of urban design in the 19

century or Art Déco

aesthetics, which has become the fashionable nucleus of

the city. In fact the central, reconstructed historic district

The reconstruction of the late 19

century and early 20

century urban landscape in Beirut historic centre 79

Dar alHandasah foundation. According to the rst plan

– cosmopolitan, contemporary architecture was designed

in the heart of the city, with only 20% of the preserved

urban tissue, but there were several guidelines and ideas

used in further legal solutions like establishing a joint-

stock company which would take over the legal respon-

sibilities for compensations to the expropriated own -

ers. Such action was extremely important due to the

nonfunctioning de facto government. With the Council

of Ministers Decree from 1994 a new plan of reconstruc-

tion (designed by Lebanese architect Jad Tarbet) expand-

ing expropriations and establishing joint-stock company

Solidere – Société Libanaise pour le Développement et

la Reconstruction du Centre-ville de Beyrouth and State

Council for Development and Reconstruction (CDR)

[3]. The major initiator of both organisations was Raq

alHariri, the Lebanese Prime Minister in 1992–1998. So 

lidere is still an operating company. Among its actions the

most important are: spatialplanning design with studies

on the local environment, the elaborating of infrastructure

plans, a net of roads, environmental studies and architec-

ture design [12]. In many publications several allegations

to the plan of reconstruction of the historical centre were

raised but they were linked to the legal mechanisms of

expropriations, legal actions of religious societies and

foundations (also owners of land in prewar times), social

issues (gentrication and resettlements of refugees) and

even in terms of spatial planning, the plan was regarded

is not only gathering the majority of tourist attractions

(ancient heritage in archaeological areas, mosques and

churches) but it also became an attraction itself.

Case of Beirut

The case of reconstruction of the downtown of Beirut

was analysed in economic, social and political (religion is

an important factor in multi religious Lebanon) terms. The

issue of aesthetics and the quality of modern, context archi-

tecture added to architectural reconstructions was hardly

mentioned, when in fact it is important for the local city

social life and as a tourist attraction. (Apart from the cen-

tral districts there are only single cultural attractions: muse-

ums and palaces with galleries, few historical sacral archi-

tecture scattered around the non-centred districts of capital

city, or natural landmarks like Pigeon Rocks in the western

part of the city)

. Modern architecture outside the centre is

aesthetically daring, sometimes avant-garde in architectur-

al quality, serves its designed functions but does not attract

as many tourists, even in the case of architecture designed

by famous architects, as in fact, the historic centre does.

The inuence which the reconstruction of monuments

in the district has had on cultural landscape of the Leb-

anese capital is fully appreciated from today’s perspec-

tive – after ten years of experience. The centre of the city

called The Beirut Central District (BCD)/Centre Ville was

reconstructed fully with the spatial layout which is the late

century and interwar of the 20

century cultural herit-

age (Fig. 1). Apart from the previous two centuries, which

have the major impact on cityscape, the modern shape of

the district is also the result of the contemporary 21

cen-

tury architectural and urban design visions, adjusted also

to the pre-19

century forms and areas (like the locations

of archeologic architectural areas and historic, preserved

during the war, buildings dated before the historic urban

plan was implemented in the late 19

and 20

c.) which

have also an impact on the “ideal” form of the original

radiant antebellum plan. Although during 16 years of the

Civil War (1975–1990) the whole Beirut was ruined, the

BCD became the scene of especially heavy ghts during

the war, which damaged nearly all the heritage build-

ings with only a few examples of remaining architecture.

The pre-war landscape was shaped mainly in the period

from the end of the 19

century (when Beirut became the

capital of the Osman province) and the French Mandate

(1920–1926) period. The model for its urban development

was Paris. The rst plan of the city’s centre reconstruc-

tion was made in 1991 and was proposed and nanced by

the Raq alHariri foundation [3, p. 233]. The plan was

planner in the

The Lebanese capital is one of the richest cities in the world in

history. Heritage of prehistoric, Phoenician, GrecoRoman, Medieval

and Ottoman origin is the most important issue in contemporary urban

design and had a major impact on Beirut’s urban planning even in the

late 19

century (like the change in the plan of place d’Étoile). The main

contemporary archeological discoveries in the historical core of the city,

which had a direct impact on the reconstructed urban plan, are described

further in the paper.

Fig. 1. Beirut Central District, Saad Zaghloul Street – pedestrian area

between Waygand, Al Lenbi and Foch Street with carefully

reconstructed tenement houses from the late 19

–early 20

century.

Islamic revival and neoclassical detail, renovated interiors

and new urban detail with greenery designs. At the end of axis

of view – new, context architecture at Al Lenbi Street is visible

(photo by S. Wróblewski, 2019)

Il. 1. Beirut Central District, ul. Saad Zaghloula

– strefa wyłączona z ruchu kołowego pomiędzy ul. Wayganda,

Allenby’ego i Focha z pieczołowicie zrekonstruowanymi kamienicami

pochodzącymi z końca XIX i początku XX w. Kamienice mają

odtworzony detal neoklasycystyczny i neoottomański, poddane

renowacji wnętrza, a we wnętrzu urbanistycznym ulicy widoczne są

nowe rozwiązania zieleni i detalu urbanistycznego. Na końcu osi

widokowej ulicy, przy ul. Allenby’ego, widoczna współczesna, dopaso-

wana do kontekstu urbanistycznego architektura nowej kamienicy (fot.

S. Wróblewski, 2019)

80 Sebastian Wróblewski

the whole centre of the capital is the Beirut Heritage Trail,

which was a cooperation project of Solidere and the Leb-

anese Ministry of Culture. The BHT connects archaeolog-

ical sites, historical plan of public spaces and monuments

in 2.5 km distance. The Trail has been equipped with

information boards and marked by bronze medallions in

pavements and has become one of the main tourist infor-

mation facilities.

In the case of reconstruction of the monuments and

spatial plans of pre-war times, the major actions were

undertaken in sections marked in Solidere plan as: E, F,

G, H and I [12] (Fig. 2). In all of these areas three cate-

gories of design strategies were adopted. First strategy is

full reconstruction of antebellum architecture. The second

category is for buildings that lack documentation of their

historical image. In this situation, the architect generates

a composition of the historical elements of the urban con-

text to create a new building façade resembling the tradi-

tional ones in the context [2, p. 7]. The third is a design

which mixes the old and new, modern solutions.

Section E – Beirut Souks – located in the northern

part of the central district – is the area of former Ottoman

caravanserais, bazaars and markets. New Beirut Souks

were designed as the biggest market centre in the Leb-

anese capital of 100 000 m

area, and opened in 2009.

Their spatial plan is a recall of even longer time perspec-

tive than the 19

century. In some parts of the Souks both

spatial layout and names of previous Ottoman souks were

reconstructed (Souk alTawileh and Souk alJamil were in

pre-war times souks with haute couture shops and Souk

alFranj served as a ower and fruit market) although the

as over-isolating the central district from the rest of the

capital and with a large number of the demolished original

buildings. Thanks to the action of the group of 15 urban

planners and scientists (APSAD), the plan was changed

[3, p. 242]. New Solidere plan included lower intensity

of area with the new, lower maximum height of districts

The rst vision – in which Beirut should become “Hong

Kong” of the Mediterranean – was nally replaced by the

vision of the “Paris of Middle East” – and to the 19

centu-

ry landscape planning ideas were reincarnated [3, p. 243].

Thanks to political inuences and nancial resources,

Solidere plan was implemented in a signicant degree

till 1998. Beirut Central District project covers 191 ha

including the old town district area of 118 ha and 73 ha

regained from the sea. Over a half of the area – 98 ha was

designed as a public space: streets (59 ha), parks, gardens,

promenades, city squares (39 ha), with 22 ha of remaining

and renovated buildings area which belong to the religious

societies and foundations. New Solidere plan covered 10%

of all greenery areas in Beirut and over 30% more of pub-

lic open spaces then in the pre-war city [12].

Solidere plan for the Beirut centre is divided into 10 sec-

tions – each with their own guidelines and rules of design-

ing architecture, 8 are located in the historical core and

2 in the waterfront district. The important project covering

In fact BCD district has average height buildings of 5–8 oors,

larger then in the prewar times, but no skyscrapers. High rise buildings

could be located in the western, southern and eastern from BCD districts

so it allows to keep original perspectives and the axis of view in the

historic district.

Fig. 2. Map of BCD with sections from Solidere Master Plan – EI, main streets, squares and architecture mentioned in the text

(elaborated by S. Wróblewski, 2019)

Il. 2. Plan obejmujący BCD z oznaczonymi sekcjami EI, z opracowanego przez Solidere planu miejscowego, oraz głównymi ulicami,

placami i obiektami wspomnianymi w tekście (oprac. S. Wróblewski, 2019)

The reconstruction of the late 19

century and early 20

century urban landscape in Beirut historic centre 81

original Medieval structures of souks were too damaged

and were dismantled. Other archaeological remains dis-

covered during new construction works are: Phoenician

district remains, Byzantine mosaics, Medieval moat and

madrassa Ibn Iraq Al Dimashqi which were preserved

and exposed to the public. In fact some genesis – ideas

of spatial plans of current souks could be even found in

the net of streets of the Hellenistic city. An internation-

al architecture competition was organised by Solidere

for Beirut Souks and the winners and designers were

architects Spanish José Rafael Moneo Vallés with Leba-

nese Samir Khairallah and Partners (designers of South-

ern Souk – The Core of Souks) and British Kevin Dash

with Rak El Khoury and Partners (designers of Jewel-

lery Souk) [12]. The whole assembly of the Beirut Souks

with several public spaces has unied interesting modern

architecture with vernacular reminiscences. The same

design solutions of shop-windows with a repeated rhythm

of arches is making an interesting set of frames for axes of

views towards Waterfront District (still in ongoing works

and after the destruction in 2021 with possible changes in

spatial planning). Arches are not only constructions – they

are reminders of local cultural heritage – Ottoman souks

(Fig. 3). Of other vernacular solutions – regional materi-

als, typical for the local cultural environment, were used

– such as basalt pavements (however in a more elaborate

pattern of slabs than the original one), sandstone slabs as

façade facing (also in a contemporary chevron pattern),

metal trellises (reminders of Ottoman window shutters).

Very original, daring architecture of roofs is visible only

from a bird’s view perspective (or from the surrounding

higher tenement houses). Noticeable from the pedestrian

perspective are mainly modern skylights allowing natural

sunlight into the large space. Souks are not designed with

single one space but there are several public spaces, court-

yards and small squares. In the northern part of the struc-

ture – El Moutran square with a regular, original pattern of

pavements was designed. Its southern façade is composed

of two, currently renovated or constructed buildings. One

of them is a single tenement house from the beginning of

the 20

century, located by the former Trablos Street

. Its

façade is destined as a monument – reminder of the Civil

War and therefore all destruction caused by gunshots is

commemorated and it will not be replaced by new stone

surface elements as a permanent testimony of the war. The

other building is the one part of the Northern Souks – with

contemporary, “organic”, the 21

century architecture.

The exaggerated contrast between the old and new archi-

tecture is one of key elements of public space which will

be the entrance to New Waterfront District with modern

architecture and spatial composition, although that new

architecture does not blend in with the landscape of BCD

and is typical for the spectacular style of new cities of

Arabic countries rather than suitable for the elegance

of “Parisian” district of Beirut (Fig. 4).

Trablos Street was famous for being the location for pre-war edi-

tors oces of the main Lebanese newspapers [13] and still has symbolic

meanings.

Fig. 4. El Moutran Square’s southern façade of adjacent quarter

composed by two, currently renovated or constructed buildings

(photo by S. Wróblewski, 2019)

Il. 4. Południowa pierzeja kwartału przy pl. Moutrana

skomponowana z dwóch budynków: jednego aktualnie poddawanego

renowacji oraz drugiego – współczesnego (w budowie)

(fot. S. Wróblewski, 2019)

Fig. 3. Beirut Souks interior. Arches are not only constructions

– they are reminders of the local cultural heritage – Ottoman souks,

also patterns in the space between arches is derived from mashrabiya

pattern of shutters (photo by S. Wróblewski, 2019)

Il. 3. Wnętrze Beirut Souks. Łuki bazaru pełnią nie tylko funkcję

konstrukcji, ale są także reminiscencją lokalnego dziedzictwa

kulturowego, bazarów pochodzących z czasów ottomańskich.

Również dekoracje w przestrzeniach pomiędzy nimi

odtwarzają wzory stosowane w zewnętrznych żaluzjach okien

i wykuszy tzw. mashrabiya

(fot. S. Wróblewski, 2019)

82 Sebastian Wróblewski

Section F – Wadi Abou Jamil, is a residential area of

medium intensity with preserved several buildings from

the 1930–1950s. Soldiere project has initiated restoration

of important monuments and new inll structures [12].

Section G – Conservation area is the most important

area in terms of reconstruction of urbanistic heritage from

Ottoman period or French mandate period, combined

with conservation and exposition or archaeological zones.

In the core of that district is Nejmeh Square also called

Place de l’Étoile and the main axis of view alongside

Maarad Street.

Nejmeh Square – Place de l’Étoile was designed ac 

cord ing to the plan of Camille Duraourd, in 1926. Bei-

rut Municipality decided to reinstate the Ottoman project

of 1878. Duraourd – director of new Lebanese cadas-

tral services, developed a plan, completed in 1932 [13].

Duraourd plan was inspired by the Parisian city plan

– especially place de l’Étoile in the place of narrow curvy

Ottoman streets and Roman Forum. Originally it was

planned as a full radial 8 streets, yet due to the location

of Saint George GreekOrthodox and Saint Elias – Greek

Catholic Cathedrals

on one side of Place de l’Étoile, the

plan was not fully implemented and was shaped in current

6 radial streets, which were lately fully reconstructed [13].

The main avenue on the southern axis–Maarad Street with

arcades on its sides was designed as a pedestrian area

The other façades of the Nejmeh Square are composed of

the Parliament House and the deputies’ new oce build-

ing, the original 1930s tenement houses with banks and

oces. Original façades were renovated and signs of war

were mainly covered with new façade’s surface analogous

to the historic one.

The original 1934s clock tower (designed by Mardiros

Altounian), in the centre of the square, was a gift from

And in modern times the archeological discoveries of Ancient

mosaics presented in situ and under and around the churches.

The area has arcades (both pointed and full arches) of usually 5–7 m

of height (2 levels – ground oor and rst oor). Such a composition of

façade was established in the late 1920s. Currently also emphasis on two

lower oors is typical in modern inll architecture. Usually it is high-

lighted by long, vertical windows.

Fig. 5. The clock tower in the centre of Nejmeh Square – Place de l’Étoile, designed according to the plan of Camille Duraffourd, in 1926.

The tower designed by Mardiros Altounian in 1934, destroyed in the 1970s, is a careful recent reconstruction of the original height

and historic detail. In the background renovated, preserved tenement houses from the 1930–1940s (photo by S. Wróblewski, 2019)

Il. 5. Wieża zegarowa w centrum Nejmeh Square – Place de l’Étoile zaprojektowanego zgodnie z planem Camille’a Duraffourda w 1926 r.

Wieża, powstała oryginalnie według projektu Mardirosa Altouniana w 1934 r., została zburzona w latach 70. XX w.

Obecna jest dokładną rekonstrukcją z odtworzeniem gabarytów i historycznego detalu.

W tle pierzeje placu skomponowane z zachowanych, poddanych renowacji kamienic z lat 1930–1940 (fot. S. Wróblewski, 2019)

The reconstruction of the late 19

century and early 20

century urban landscape in Beirut historic centre 83

LebaneseBrazilian émigré Michel Abed to Lebanon,

and is the latest reconstruction of the cultural landscape

element. The original clock tower was destroyed in the

1970s, when there were archaeological excavations in situ

of Roman Forum performed in the square’s centre [13].

The tower is a careful recent reconstruction of the original

height and historic detail and once again became one of

the architectural symbols of Beirut (Fig. 5). In the north-

ern part of the square, in a similar way, detail of tenement

houses’ façades was reconstructed, while in the southern

part detail was designed in reduced, modernize forms of

arcades, balcony railings, cornices and window frames.

The whole frontage of façades of tenement houses at Al

Amir Bachir Street, visible from Roman forum has similar

detail (quite analogous to Maarad St. solutions), stylized

as Art Déco forms. The rhythm of façades’ divisions gives

the impression of a monumental background for a large

open view of the archaeological area. There is only one,

preserved tenement house from the 1920–1940s

, a peri-

od which has neo-oriental detail, fully re constructed. Due

to the use of the same sandstone in all façades, both origi-

nal and new, the whole urban complex is unied. Opposite

the complex there is Le Grand Théatre des Milles et Une

Nuits, preserved as a ruin, which further function is not

yet determined (although there are currently few similar

buildings in Beirut like Beit Beirut, which were preserved

as “solid, permanent ruins” – architectural monuments –

testimony documenting the atrocities of the war, and some

are adapted for tourists’ visits). The whole District has

been reconstructed according to the spatial layout of the

pre-war era only with street compositions, with the excep-

tion that in some areas lines of façades were adjusted to

the archaeological excavations but old building plots were

not fully reconstructed and the old rhythm of tenement

houses with sandstone façades is gone, replaced by longer

façades. Unfortunately there are few inlls – like for

example the Oces of the Members of Parliament in Par-

liament Street, with façades fully composed of glass (the

building was designed by Nabil Azar in 1998) [2, pp. 8, 9]

(Fig. 6). Although the architect designed a traditional main

façade (which is visible from the main square), a glass

side façade contrasts with the rest of the street of coherent

and unied stone façades, which proves that vernacular or

stylized forms of design are far better standing the test of

time than “fashionable” glass architecture from the 1990s.

Perhaps the most original of contemporary aesthetic, yet

fully concordant to the local landscape, building is the

Pavilion at the side of St. George church, which is an

entrance to the Ancient mosaics collection exposed in situ,

and under the church. The architecture of the building is

based on curved, gentle lines and with one side is also

a border line of a street leading to St. Elie church, so it

Heritage architecture with vernacular detail and architectural

styles of Beirut (both tenement houses and villas) were described by

Saliba in [14]. Majority of architecture has not been designed by well

known architects but rather by anonymous designers. Saliba describes

materials and constructions of the majority of Beirut’s tenement houses.

Also urban modernization of the 1920–1940s was described. As Saliba

noticed there is a signicant lack of precadastral maps before 1920.

suits perfectly the 1920s aesthetic climate of the area with

its curved corners and reduced detail of Art Déco (Fig. 7).

The northern part of the area between Foch and Allenby

(Al Lenbi) Streets has the largest percentage of original or

fully reconstructed tenement houses with detail typical for

the period circa 1880–1950 (dierent architectural cos-

tumes: NeoClassical, NeoTraditional and Islamic reviv-

alism with Art Nouveau and Art Déco reminiscences).

The artistically designed detail is made in white or hon-

eycolours sandstone, basalt and limestone. Also wooden

window frames and new balcony railings and other metal

constructions and detail are individually designed. To sev-

eral old buildings new vitrines and shop windows were

added. That area has also the majority of streets closed for

trac and adapted for pedestrians. And therefore the local

basalt pavement is used while in other (Al Lenbi St.) cases

where trac is allowed the asphalt surface is introduced

(which is better for trac and not for aesthetic outlook).

An interesting part is the design of urban infrastructure

– street lamps and metal protection of trees are

“Hauss-

mannian style” design evoking the spirt of the 19

cen-

tury Parisian atmosphere, while the street bollards are new,

modern designs. New greenery was added – some in the

originally designed composition or single pots. In terms of

aesthetic, it is one of the most elegant parts of the BCD,

adorned with contemporary sculptures and works of art.

At Foch Street – Abou Bakr (Dabbagha) Mosque and

at Waygand Street two mosques were reconstructed (Al

Omari and Amir Assaf mosques), also the Municipality of

Beirut (a building with Islamic revivalism detail designed

by Youssef Aftimos, nished till 1925 [13]) at the same

street was carefully reconstructed giving the impression

of an old town district.

The area of crossing of Foch Street and Weygand Street

is a key composition of the main “entrance” to the old

Fig. 6. Parliament Street. One building with a façade fully composed

of glass, which resembles the 1990s aesthetics and contrasts with

the rest of the street of coherent and unified stone façades

(photo by S. Wróblewski, 2019)

Il. 6. Parliament Street. Budynek w pierzei ulicy zaprojektowany

jako obiekt ze szklaną fasadą utrzymaną w estetyce lat 90. XX w.,

kontrastującą z pozostałą częścią ulicy o ujednoliconej estetyce

z fasadami o kamiennych okładzinach na elewacjach

(fot. S. Wróblewski, 2019)

84 Sebastian Wróblewski

– 1 or 2 attic ones are withdrawn from the line of the main

façades

. Vertical windows are common like in the ante-

bellum period. The detail is cut in honey colour sandstone,

made in metal or wood – sometimes with reminiscences

to Art Déco detail like shutters, cornices or railings. In

the case of Le Gray Hotel – its façade was designed with

a vertical pre-modernist rhythm and was divided into three

sections as the original, prewar plot lands layout (Fig. 8).

In prewar times long façades were designed in admin-

istration architecture mainly (like the Municipality build-

ing by Youssef Aftimos). Those structures were also the

highest forms. Nowadays all new buildings are of similar

height or higher than the pre-war structures, the majori-

ty of them have sandstone façades, some with “Islamic

Revival” or Art Déco sculpted detail, however there are

few hybrids with lower oors of old aesthetics and upper

of new, contemporary ones, which are not the best artistic

solutions, yet thanks to unifying stone façades together

with vertical rhythms (windows, detail) are blending in

with the landscape of streets.

Further part of Waygand Street leads to the southern

entrance to the Beirut Souks and architecture in that area

is not stylized on antebellum buildings. Only urban plan

In Art Déco inuenced buildings, “Haussmannian” rules about

detail are changed as in the original, historic ones. Instead of large cor-

nices which usually adorned the upper part of the late 19

century façade

there is a simple – no cornice solution or re-modelling the cornice into

the form of gloriette in the highest oor. Also windows are grouped in-

stead of singular vertical forms, which gives the impression of a hori-

zontal composition. In both – Art Déco and neostyle of the 19

century

costumes – the same material for façade was used. Nowadays there are

some changes. Honey color sandstone is still used but also other contem-

porary materials, although with the similar colours – from white to ivory,

mixed with metalwork.

Fig. 8. Le Gray Hotel with a façade along Waygand Street

designed with a vertical pre-modernist rhythm and divided into

three sections as the original, pre-war plot lands layout.

Also cornices and curved corners are derived from antebellum designs

(photo by S. Wróblewski, 2019)

Il. 8. Le Gray Hotel z elewacją od strony ul. Wayganda,

zaprojektowany z wertykalną, przedmodernistyczną rytmiką

i podzielony na trzy części zgodnie z oryginalnym,

przedwojennym układem przestrzennourbanistycznym.

Również narożniki o łukowym profilu i gzymsy w elewacjach

wywodzą się z projektów pochodzących z okresu przed wojną

(fot. S. Wróblewski, 2019)

town district from Martyrs’ Square side and the end of

axis of view which is composed alongside radial Hussein

El Ahdab Street (the street is starting from Nejmeh Sq.).

The two mosques at Weygand Street are dening the local

landscape but in dierent ways. The Al Omari Grand

Mosque is partially reconstructed – from the side of the

street it was designed with contemporary façade with

a minaret – a travesty of Art Déco architecture, perfectly

blending into the local landscape. The Amir Asaf mosque

is more modest, of raw aesthetics. Between them a gar-

den of contemporary design was placed. The next building

towards Martyrs’ Square is the new Le Gray hotel, which

has the original tenement house façade oriented towards

the square, but elevations at Waygand Street are expand-

ed on several old plots and designed in a modern way. In

the vicinity of Waygand Street there are many contempo-

rary buildings with sandstone façades like Le Gray Hotel

with modern, reduced detail. The corners of new buildings

like in original Art Déco buildings are curved or diagonal-

ly cut. Just like in the “Haussmannian” rules lots of them

have 4 or 5 oors nished with large cornices, and the next

Fig. 7. Pavilion at the side of St. George church, which is an entrance

to the Ancient mosaics collection exposed in situ, and under the church.

The architecture of the building is based on curved, gentle lines

and with one side is also a border line of street leading to the St. Elie

church, so it suits perfectly the 1920s aesthetic climate of area

(photo by S. Wróblewski, 2019)

Il. 7. Pawilon zaprojektowany przy kościele pw. św. Jerzego

jako wejście do prezentowanych in situ i pod kościołem odkrytych

antycznych mozaik. Kompozycja architektury budynku oparta

na zakrzywionych, delikatnych liniach, z jedną z elewacji tworzących

linię zabudowy ulicy prowadzącej do kościoła pw. św. Eliasza,

doskonale została wpasowana w dominującą w otoczeniu estetykę

dwudziestolecia międzywojennego (fot. S. Wróblewski, 2019)

The reconstruction of the late 19

century and early 20

century urban landscape in Beirut historic centre 85

with the line of façades is from the previous period while

the architecture is modern, all façades are covered with

local stone slabs and adorned with modern, contemporary

metal detail. In the background of these structures is an

important quarter with banks and oces where the area

of Roman Baths archaeological excavations with viewing

terraces and a new garden was designed.

Section H – is the area in which the axis connecting the

centre of Beirut with New Waterfront is the main idea. In

the middle of the section – Martyrs’ Square with Bechara

El Khoury and Damascus streets are located – compos-

ing the most symbolic places for the society of Lebanon:

Square itself with a monument in the middle, the Garden

of Forgiveness, Mohammad Al Amin Mosque, St. George

Maronite Cathedral, PM Rac Hariri gravesite area. In

2004 Solidere run an international design competition,

which was won by Antonis Noukakis and Partners Archi-

tects (Greece) and in 2012 Renzo Piano Building Work-

shop (RPBW, Paris) added to it an urban design study [12].

As a nal result the Square has open view perspectives

towards the seaside, parking places where transferred

under ground, and much more “green roofs” appeared.

New square frontage was composed of conservative, yet

ver tical architecture of Mohammad Al Amin Mosque and

one of the most elegant public commemorative space in

Beirut – Rac Hariri white coloured gravesite area, locat-

ed between the Martyrs’ Square and the Ancient forum

excavations. Two original antebellum tenement houses

(one is Le Gray Hotel adaptation) and two quite modern

fa çades made the rest of that western frontage. One of the

new façades, due to its location, became one of the most

known contemporary structures in Beirut. It is far more

lar ger than the buildings which existed in the same place

before the war, but as the rest of the city centre’s architec-

ture has limestone façades. The main façade has an extra

curtain façade of glass elements on metal frames covering

balconies which gives them a unique look (Fig. 9). The rest

of the Square frontages are still in the building process.

There are several public spaces in Beirut, which serve

both the city inhabitants and tourists. All of these areas

were designed by famous architects and adorned with

contemporary works of art and new forms of public green-

ery. The most important are: Ajami Square composing the

northern entrance to Beirut Souks designed by Rafael

Moreno (Spain); Sayyour Square also designed by More-

no with sculptures by Arne Quinze (Belgium); Bab Idriss

Square designed at the southwestern entrance to Beirut

Souks was planned in the place of Antique street lead-

ing to Hippodrome with a group of sculptures – Prome-

nade à l’Hippodrome by Xavier Corbero (Spain) which

is a revocation of old functions. One of the most visit-

ed by the tourists is Imam Ouzai Square, also known as

Zawiyat Ibn Iraq Square, designed by Martha Schwaertz

and Partners (USUK) located in the Beirut Souks district

[12]. The square has a unique pavement with an ornament

composed of black basalt and white marble which marks

the old spatial plan, also ruins of Ottoman structures and

Ancient mosaics are exposed in situ.

In other squares and public spaces there are modern

forms and compositions of greenery – contrary to the

pre-war period greenery is more “strict” and planned to

certain areas. Gardens and other forms of green compo-

sitions are also designed by various landscape architects

(Mohamad Halawi, Gustafson Porter, Vladimir Djurovic).

The largest contemporary garden is Serail Hill which now

with Roman Baths excavations is one of new composi-

tions in the heart of the Lebanese capital. Until the 1870s

the Serail Hill was outside the Ottoman city walls, only

with the construction of Grand Serail – former military

buildings, adapted to the seat of Governor Fuad Pasha. At

the end of that century at the hill the Saint Louis Cathedral

and Clock Tower were built. During the French Mandate

the military hospital was converted to the Court of Justice

[13]. After 1991 a new, third oor to this building was

added and now it is the residence and oce of the Prime

Minister. Other historic architecture was renovated after

Fig. 9. Martyrs’ Square.

Both Mohammad Al Almin

Mosque and the western

frontage, visible at the picture,

are new constructions

(photo by S. Wróblewski, 2019)

Il. 9. Plac Męczenników

– Martyrs’ Square.

Zarówno meczet Mohammada

Al Almina, jak i cała

zachodnia pierzeja prezentowane

na zdjęciu stanowią nowe,

współczesne realizacje

(fot. S. Wróblewski, 2019)

86 Sebastian Wróblewski

the war, but also new elements were added. The eastern

frontage of the Serail Hill open space is hieratic, present-

ing a historic continuity even with new inlls, the western

frontage is a long façade of the Council for Development

and Reconstruction but the northern frontage with new

architecture located in the background of the St. Louis

Cathedral is not the best quality design. The building is

the 1980s aesthetics and from the Serail Hill perspective

has an “over-sculptured”, with too much diagonal com-

position – façade (Fig. 10). The Garden and Roman baths

archaeological site marks the western border of the recon-

structed urban plan of the historic district. In the west-

ern part, behind the Garden the rest of the urban layout

in section F of Solidere plan is quite modern with con-

temporary buildings and few remains of pre-war archi-

tecture – renovated and reconstructed (like The Maghen

Abraham Synagogue from 1925, renovated after the war

in 2009–2010 and after the blast from 2021 [15] or some

residential architecture). In the whole downtown of Beirut

Solidere conducts many restoration works on original pre-

war architecture. Of all 265 preserved and restored build-

ings the ownerships of 11 were transferred to Solidere

[12]. The detail was reconstructed according to the ante-

bellum solutions, limestone – from the local places used.

Old architecture was adapted to new functions with new

roofs, skylights, “green roofs” added and its constructions

were strengthened.

A very special place became also a new form of public

space called Garden of Forgiveness / Jardin du Pardon. In

the Master Plan of Beirut City – the garden was designed

in place of former Green Line, which was classied as

nonbuilding zone. Garden with Levantine greenery was

designed in modern composition. Gustafson Porter in

1998 [12] designed an area with an enclosed water gar-

den and viewpoints to the archaeological excavations of

crossings of two main Roman street of Berytus – Cardo

and Decumanus Maximus

Section I – Sai Village is the area of the former resi-

dential district with a reconstructed spatial plan but most-

ly modern, contemporary structures and few renovated

tenement houses and villas with orientalneoGothic detail

(mainly in George Haddad St.) [12].

Beirut’s archaeological and pre-19

century – Medieval and Ot-

toman heritage was described in [16].

Fig. 10. Roman Bath at Serail Hill with archaeological excavations presented in situ and new gardens.

The building in the back (northern frontage) with 1980s modernist aesthetics and from the Serail Hill perspective “oversculptured”

with too much diagonal composition façade (photo by S. Wróblewski, 2019)

Il. 10. Łaźnie rzymskie – Roman Bath na Serail Hill – ekspozycja reliktów archeologicznych, prezentowanych in situ z zaprojektowanymi

współczesnymi ogrodami. Budynek w tle (północna pierzeja wnętrza urbanistycznego) z modernistycznym obiektem, utrzymanym w estetyce

lat 80. XX w., nadmiernie rozrzeźbionym i ze zbyt diagonalną kompozycją elewacji widocznej z perspektywy na zdjęciu (fot. S. Wróblewski, 2019)

The reconstruction of the late 19

century and early 20

century urban landscape in Beirut historic centre 87

Conclusions

The reconstruction of Beirut’s historical centre (BCD)

brought the life back to the district destroyed by the war.

In fact it also brought back the tourists to the Lebanese

capital.

Nady quoted Djamel Boussaa’s article: Urban Conser-

vation and Sustainability: Cases from Historic Cities in

the Gulf and North Africa: The main reasons for regene-

rationofhistoriccentrescanbeclassiedintotwocate

go ries. Firstly, urban heritage helps to forge national

identitieswhichenablepeopletodenewhotheyareand

where they are. Secondly, urban heritage may have as-

sumed economic importance, as people increasingly want

to reuse their historic areas and buildings as resources for

trade and tourism to increase their income [8]. In both fac-

tors aesthetic of architecture and beauty of historic ur ban

planning are important. There are several factors which

determine reconstruction of the 19

century cultural land-

scape over modern solutions in the historic districts and

were applied in BCD:

– Clear distinction between public and private out-

door spaces usually blurred in a modernist spatial plan,

which is one of the reasons why people mainly choose

the 19

century districts over modernist ones for living.

Historical plan clearly denes the public space of street

and private of interiors, while lines of frontages create

visible perspectives which dene the Beauty in the urban

plan. Interaction between an old spatial plan and new

architecture and urban design is a unique factor bonding

the tradition and modernity. In Beirut the clearest form

of urban layout is in fact in the reconstructed histori-

cal district. Reconstructed frontages of streets informed

about the French historic solutions of spatial plan and are

in contrast to the rest of the capital with not so homoge-

nous urban composition with strict frontages and careful-

ly planned, unied in one design action street interiors.

The only problem in Beirut was not fully reconstructed

historical land divisions, although in some parts historic

plot divisions were underlined in new façades (the case of

Le Grey Hotel – with three divisions of former plot lands

in one, new structure). But urban scale, typical for the

19/20

century was preserved and location of skyscrapers

outside BCD forced by the local Master Plan which lim-

its the height of the new architecture allowed keeping the

historic perspectives and views intact.

– Location and communication in the old centres – it

is easier to close streets or squares for car trac based

on historical – the 19 and early 20

century solutions

and design them as promenades and public spaces. The

purpose and the function of street changed with time and

could be adjusted to requirements of the current times.

In modernist areas – street – not as clearly dened as in

historic cities has always functioned as adapted for trac

and it is harder to adapt to modernity. Closing for traf-

c streets in historical district of Beirut allowed creating

a large scale pedestrian area with new urban artworks and

greenery not possible to design in other districts of the

ca pital city on a similar scale. Pavement used in the re-

constructed area unies the district and highlights the

beauty of façades with contrast colours (black basalt and

white-sandy colours of façades). The pedestrian area due

to dierent elements of urban design is also a safer space

for users and improves quality of life of the inhabitants in

densely populated Beirut.

– Comparison of the modern and the 19

century style

architecture brings the notice that even typical pre-func-

tionalist architecture is easier to adapt to a new function and

of course more “worth” saving for cultural purposes than

“soulless” contemporary post 1950s, typical, interna

tional

architecture without any signicant forms with roots to the

local heritage, history or environment. In the case of

Bei -

rut only historical antebellum architecture was re novated

after the war and adapted to new purposes. How ever, in

some cases extra oors were added to historic buildings,

which distorted the original design of architecture.

– Aesthetics quality of the 19

century and Art Déco

architecture and urbanism has been evaluated by the time

and is easily understandable by broad strata of society.

Such quality, even reconstructed, attracts not only the

city inhabitants but tourists as well – especially in cities

destroyed in the war conicts. Beirut’s historical district

became the largest area of beautiful, homogeneous aes-

thetics in Lebanese capital. The scale of new inlls in the

urban plan and composition of façades of new architecture

Fig. 11. New architecture in Art Déco style at the corner of

Al Lenbi and Weygand Streets Corner of the building based shaped

as semicylindrical with typical Art Déco aesthetics.

General composition adjusted to “Haussmannian” rules – upper floors

withdrawn from the line of the frontage, lower two floors emphasised.

Art Déco reminiscences – shape and division of windows,

decoration of sandstone on the façade

(photo by S. Wróblewski, 2019)

Il. 11. Nowa architektura w stylu art déco

na rogu ul. Allenby’ego i Weyganda.

Narożnik budynku został ukształtowany na bazie cylindrycznej

z typową dla art déco estetyką. Ogólna kompozycja obiektu

dostosowana do zasad “haussmannowskich” – górne kondygnacje

zostały wycofane w stosunku do lica elewacji, parter i pierwsze piętro

podkreślone. Reminiscencje art déco to kształt

i podziały okien

oraz dekoracja z okładziny piaskowcowej na elewacjach

(fot. S. Wróblewski, 2019)

88 Sebastian Wróblewski

Abstract

The reconstruction of the late 19

century and early 20

century urban landscape – in Beirut historic centre

In the capital of Lebanon one of the globally largest works on reconstruction of the landscape of the historical core of the city were performed.

The project prepared by Solidere was a design to reconstruct the most valuable urban plan of the central district after the destruction during the Civil

War. In Historical Centre of Beirut not only reconstructions but also new architecture adjusted to historical aesthetic had to be created. The main aim

of article is the presentation of dierent approaches to spatial and architectural designs in the Lebanese capital’s historic district from the perspective

of assessment of modern and reconstructed architectural quality, aesthetics of historical – the late 19

century and Art Déco inuences on modern ar-

chitecture and contemporary urban detail designed in the recreated historic space. The research was focused on assessment of the context architecture

and value of reconstructions and adaptations of buildings in the city’s central district.

Key words: Beirut, architecture, the 19

century, the 20

century, reconstruction, spatial planning

is adjusted to preserved monuments and mainly subordi-

nated to historic divisions and compositions of historic

façades so it is the historic aesthetics with its conception

of Beauty that dominates in BCD.

– Uniqueness of the 19

century and Art Déco archi-

tecture and urbanism is noticeable – contemporary archi-

tecture is usually “international” and can be designed

any where while reconstructed areas inform us of the lo -

cal history and culture with context architecture. Aesthetic

quality of even the smallest detail from historical architec-

ture is not comparable to modern architecture in which

detail is hardly designed. All historical detail in many

cases has more meanings for both citizens of the city and

tourists, from the vernacular symbolic meaning to revok-

ing the climate of nostalgia for by gone era, so in the case

of Beirut historic district even the new architecture search

for the detail inspiration into the Past. All materials (like:

sandstone in local honey colour, metal used in railings,

wood in shutters and window framing, basalt in pave-

ments) and aesthetic (curved lines of corners, large cor-

nices, small balconies, vertical windows with divisions)

are derived from the local context both historical and con-

temporary with regard to the highest quality of craftsman-

ship (Fig. 11).

Comparing the experiences of Beirut centre recon-

struction with the other 19

century and early 20

century

districts (Warsaw, Berlin), it is noticeable that Lebanese

historic city’s core is not only one of the biggest, coher-

ent aesthetically urban compositions but also in terms of

modern architecture it is an example of perfectly tting

new forms adjusted to the regional context and historic

solutions, proving that the merge between the Past and

Present Beauty is possible.

Translated by

Sebastian Wróblewski

References

[1] Saliba R., Beirut City Center Recovery: The Foch-Allenby and

Etoile Conservation Area, Steidl, Göttingen 2004.

[2] Felix M., Heritage cities after wars: between tradition and innova-

tion – a case study of Beirut in Lebanon, “BAU Journal – Creative

Sustainable Development” 2019, Vol. 1, Iss. 1, https://digitalcom-

mons.bau.edu.lb/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1003&context=csd-

journal [accessed: 12.02.2022].

[3] Schmid H., The Reconstruction of Downtown Beirut in the Context

of Political Geography, “The Arab World Geographer/Le Geog-

raphe du monde arabe” 2002, Vol. 5, No. 4, 232–248.

[4] Beyhum N., The crisis of urban culture: The three reconstruction

plans for Beirut, “The Beirut Review” 1992, Vol. 4, 43–62.

[5] Gavin A., Maluf R., Beirut Reborn: The Restoration and Develop-

ment of the Central District, Academy Press, London 1996.

[6] Nagel C.R., Reconstructing space, re-creating memory: sectarian

politics and urban development in post-war Beirut, “Political Geog-

raphy” 2002, 21(5), 717–725, doi: 10.1016/S09626298(02)000173.

[7] Schmid H., Privatized urbanity or a politicized society? Reconstruc-

tion in Beirut after the civil war, “European Planning Studies” 2006,

Vol. 14, Iss. 3, 365–381, doi: 10.1080/09654310500420859.

[8]

Nady R., Why Should We Treasure Historic Centers?, 2001, https://www.

arch2o.com/regenerationhistoriccenters/ [accessed: 12.03.2020].

[9] Scruton R., Piękno. Krótkie wprowadzenie, Wydawnictwo UŁ,

Łódź 2018.

[10] Bergdoll B., Reconstruction Doubts. The Paradox of Building in

Schinkel’s Name, “The Berlin Journal” 2005, Vol. 10, 45–49.

[11] Burchard W., What’s the point of rebuilding Germany’s palaces?,

“Apollo. The International Art Magazine” 2016, https://www.apol-

lomagazine.com/whatsthepointofrebuildinggermanyspalac-

es/ [accessed: 16.03.2020].

[12] Solidere, https://www.solidere.com/corporate/services/masterur-

ban-planning [accessed: 12.01.2022].

[13] Solidere, The Beirut Heritage Trail information [tables presented

in situ].

[14] Saliba R., Beirut 1920–1940 Domestic Architecture Between Tradi-

tion and Modernity, The Order of Engineers and Architects Beirut,

Beirut 1998.

[15] Sta T., Beirut synagogue renovated after port blast, but no Jews

likely to pray there, “Times of Israel”, 17 December 2020, https://

www.timesofisrael.com/beirutsynagoguerenovatedafterport

blastbutnojewslikelytopraythere/ [accessed: 31.01.2022].

[16] The Levant: History and Archaeology in the Eastern Mediterrane-

an, O. Binst (ed.), Koenemann, Koeln 2000.

The reconstruction of the late 19

century and early 20

century urban landscape in Beirut historic centre 89

Streszczenie

Rekonstrukcja krajobrazu urbanistycznego z końca XIX i początku XX w. w historycznym centrum Bejrutu

Jedną z największych w skali światowej prac związanych z rekonstrukcją krajobrazu kulturowego miasta przeprowadzono w stolicy Libanu.

Projekt przygotowany przez Solidere obejmował rekonstrukcję założenia przestrzennego po zniszczeniach powstałych w trakcie wojny domowej,

najbardziej wartościowej pod względem urbanistycznym dzielnicy centralnej. W Bejrucie powstały nie tylko rekonstrukcje architektury przedwo-

jennej, ale i współczesne obiekty architektoniczne dopasowane do specycznej estetyki dzielnicy. Głównym założeniem artykułu jest prezentacja

i ocena tych różnorodnych rozwiązań urbanistycznych i architektonicznych zastosowanych w Bejrucie w odniesieniu do współczesnej architektury

odwołującej się do estetyki z końca XIX w. i art déco, osadzonej w zrekonstruowanej przestrzeni miejskiej oraz współczesnych rozwiązań detalu

urbanistycznego. W badaniach skupiono się na zagadnieniach związanych z oceną architektury kontekstowej oraz rekonstrukcji i adaptacji obiektów

w centralnych częściach miasta.

Słowa kluczowe: Bejrut, architektura, XIX w., XX w., rekonstrukcja, urbanistyka