Architecture of time: from motion picture to computer animation

Ada Kwiatkowska

doi:10.37190/arc230411

Abstract

The architecture of the digital era, exploring the dimension of time, refers to the concept of so-called time-based art. Present computer technologies allow one to simulate the space-time transformation of architectural objects connected with observer’s movement and to create dynamic movable spatial structures by applying smart materials and technologies to architecture. The purposes of the research are to analyse the influence of the concept of time on the shaping of architectural forms and the directions of the development of architectural forms determined by technologies discovered during the industrial and information revolutions (film techniques, computer visualisations, simulations, and animations). Based on the structural analysis of dynamic mutual relations between the observer, the architectural object, and the context, connected with comparative and critical analysis of modern trends, different types of architecture of time are distinguished. These types are derivatives of the expression of time in three-dimensional space and assumptions related to the degree of changeability and dynamics of the spatial structures (kinaesthetic, kinematic, and kinetic forms), and depend on the expression tools used in the creation and simulation of the mutability of forms. Computer animation is not only a tool, but also a way of thinking about the architectural form as an object immersed in space-time, therefore it will influence the way of designing and contribute to the emergence of a new generation of forms in the near future. Time-based architecture of the information age will explore the idea of streaming architecture.

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Ada Kwiatkowska*

Architecture of time: from motion picture to computer animation

Introduction

In terms of the classical architectural theory, form was

dened as a static object exploring the potential of inan-

imate matter. The graphic representation of a static form

was shown in two-dimensional image space using such

means of expression as projecting, mapping, isometry

or perspective, which imitated three-dimensional space.

Changes in the ways of expressing architectural forms

emerged with the progress of the industrial revolution and

the exploration of lm techniques by artists and architects

at the beginning of the 20

century [1]. The forerunners

of these developments were modernist architects of the

Bauhaus School of Architecture, who experimented with

motion picture techniques in search of a representation of

architectural form in all dimensions, not only in space, but

also in time [2]. They investigated the possibilities of ex-

pression of an architectural object, taking into account the

inuence of the observer’s movement on the perception of

form in space and time (discovery of kinaesthesia). They

also explored possibilities of mutability of the architectur-

al form by experimentation with dynamic states of spatial

structure inuenced by dierent inner and outer forces in

time (discovery of kinematics and kinetics).

The Information Revolution of the 21

century forced

rapid civilisation growth, dening the aims and directions

of transformation, and creating phenomena such as virtual

reality and the Internet [3], digital art and architecture [4],

computer visualizations and animations [5]. The creators

of the information age began to explore the world of dig-

ital media, video games, the Internet, and computer tech-

nologies. Artistic and architectural visions began to be

DOI: 10.37190/arc230411

Published in open access. CC BY NC ND license

formed by the aesthetics and content of the virtual world,

creating the illusion of a four-dimensional real world.

Computer animations, which are a continuation of lm

techniques and allow the expression of the movement of the

observer and objects in the context of space-time, appeared

in the process of architectural creation as a result of using

the potential of computer programs and their tools to visu-

alize the mutability of spatial structures in time, heralding

the birth of interactive and kinetic architecture. These simu-

lations began to inuence the shape of the built space, which

was evident, for example, in the appearance of façades in

the form of multimedia electronic screens displaying ani-

mated images [6]. There are more advanced technologies

now, which allow one to simulate images as three-dimen-

sional holograms, e.g. Leia Display System, creating the il-

lusion of being in the real and transformable space-time [7].

Such solutions can be found in the CAVE project designed

by Thomas A. DeFanti and Daniel Sandin, or i-CONE cre-

ated by Martin Göbel [8]. Another important trend of the

architecture of the information age is related to explorations

of the interactions and mechanical movements of the ele-

ments of architectural objects, controlled by computer al-

gorithms [9], for instance: Saltwater Pavilion designed by

Kas Oosterhuis or V2Lab created by NOX. In such cases,

architectural objects take the form of spatial structures that

are integrated with smart networks that manage the ow of

information and energy, and direct the movements and inter-

actions between the various elements of these structures. In

the near future, architectural forms will evolve from structu-

res with network to structures as network [10]. It means that

architectural objects will become the simulators of various

dynamic states of spatial structures, which will enable their

adaptation to changing environmental and functional chal-

lenges in time. The simulators will create a space of possi-

bilities that will allow users to create and choose between

dierent forms emerging in the process of simulating the

changeability of architectural objects [11].

* ORCID:

0000-0003-3269-2657. Faculty of Architecture, Wro cław

University of Science and Technology, Poland, e-mail: ada.kwiatkowska

@pwr.edu.pl

118 Ada Kwiatkowska

State of research: the expression of architecture

exploring the dimension of time

The formulation of a special and general theory of rela-

tivity by Albert Einstein had inuence not only on the sci-

ence at the beginning of 20

century, but also on the culture

and art. Time and space were combined in the concept of

four-dimensional space-time and related to the phenomenon

of electromagnetism, which had its further consequences,

which led to the creation of new theories in the eld of not

only physics but also the theory of the perception of reality

by the human brain. Frank Wilczek compares this discovery

to changing the way of seeing an image in painting from

one xed perspective to seeing it from dierent perspectives

[12]. The change of perspectives causes the perception of

the image to dier in many aspects between dierent points

of view. This involves phenomena such as anamorphosis,

which is the distortion of the spatial structure of an image

by the movement of the observer in the metric eld, and

anachromosis – the modication of the colour of an image

by the movement of a light beam while keeping its spatial

structure unchanged. And it is precisely this variation in the

perception of the image, resulting from the new concept of

space in relation to time and movement, that has fascinated

artists and architects most since the discovery of the theory

of relativity.

The space of possibilities is an operating simulation

model of space-time, based on the exploration of muta-

bility of basic features of its internal structures and trans-

formation of its attributes by using algorithms of comput-

er programmes. Time plays the key role in the space of

possibilities. According to Brian Greene [13], to illustrate

the structure of space-time, one can use the metaphor of

a frozen river, in which space is a channel lled with ice,

and time is a sequence of cut ice slices, following one after

the other, like the frames of a motion picture. This meta-

phorical denition can be transferred to the description of

an architectural model of the space-time in the meaning

of a dynamic sequence of views of an architectural form,

following one after the another with the observer’s move-

ment, or it can signify a sequence of dynamic transforma-

tions of a spatial structure under the inuence of various

forces acting on it in space-time.

According to Dean Buonomano’s classication [14],

there are two basic currents in dening the ontological

nature of time, such as presentism and eternalism. In the

concept of presentism, only the present is real. It means

that the visualization of an architectural object in three-di-

mensional space in the present time is a representative im-

age of form as an expression of here and now. The change

of point of view along with the movement of the observer

entails the need to create more images and simultaneously

initiate new realities, because in the concept of presentism

there are no such phenomena as before and after. Only the

approach of eternalism, incorporating the concepts of past

and future as well as before and after, enables the expres-

sion of space-time continuity by dening places in time, in

other words, by spatializing of the time. The idea of eter-

nalism is related to the perception of spatial structures as

dynamic systems, being in motion and related to places in

time. Motion pictures are the best representations of archi-

tectural objects because they imitate the way the human

brain perceives and reconstructs the appearance of reality.

Finding an appropriate and stimulating way of expres-

sing time in architecture is a certain challenge, because

in the traditional understanding of architecture, the spa-

tial dimension dominates over the temporal one. A simi-

lar situation took place in visual arts – in painting, which

showed the real world or imagined by artists in static mo-

tionless pictures, existing outside of time or expressing at

most the idea of abstract time.

Wassily Kandinsky, the vanguard artist representing

abstract modern art at the beginning of 20

century in-

troduced the concept of time to art theory. As he wrote in

his book Point and Line to Plane [15], people believed for

ages that paintings are only dipped in space, while music

happens in time, which is contrary to scientic discover-

ies. The image is an act of taking place in time, both in the

aspect of its creation by the artist and its perception by the

observer. All elements of the paintings, from point to line

to surface, are characterised by a specic length of time.

Translation of visual composition into musical one, and

vice versa, is possible because they constitute the unity,

resulting from their physical wave characteristics (image

– expression of light wave, music – sound wave) and from

the similarity of wave propagation in space-time. Kandin-

sky, in the essay On Abstract Theatre Synthesis, postu-

lated the necessity of integration of all arts “architecture,

painting, sculpture, music, dance and poetry” [2, p. 104],

and subordinating them to a common language of expres-

sion and common rules of composition in space-time.

Time and movement played the key roles in the theater

performances of Oskar Schlemmer and Kandinsky, who

were the creators of avant-garde performances on the the-

ater stage of the Bauhaus School of Architecture. Schlem-

mer implemented the concept of an abstract performative

show as an expression of constructivist dance, in which

body movements, costumes and music represented dy-

namic harmony between man, space and time (e.g. Figu-

ral Cabinet, Triadic Ballet, Yellow Sequence, Pink Sequ-

ence [2]), and the concept of abstract theatrical synthesis

based on the analysis of the elementary components of

dance composition and choreography, which was to lead

to the systematization of basic geometric forms and the

principles of composition of motion pictures (e.g. Form

dance, Gesture dance, Space dance, Scenery dance, Box

Promenade [2]). These concepts were partly inuenced by

the art theories of Kandinsky, Paul Klee and El Lissitzky.

Kandinsky’s theater performances, which are a mani-

festation of synthetic art that unites all elds of art, were

created using such means of expression as abstract forms,

colors, words, sounds, music and dance gures, stimula-

ting all the senses of the performers and viewers of these

performances (e.g. The Yellow Sound, The Green Sound,

Black and White, The Violet Curtain [2]). Performances

of this author showed the dynamic and time-varying na-

ture of architectural forms, resulting from the movements

of spatial objects, and the dynamic and time-varying na-

ture of the perception of these forms, resulting from the

movement of the observer. Kandinsky’s artistic ideas, his

Architecture of time: from motion picture to computer animation 119

theatrical performances and motion pictures exploring the

dimension of time had a signicant impact on modernist

architecture. In his performances, Kandinsky referred to

three basic aspects of movement, such as kinaesthesia,

manifested in body movements (dance), kinematics, ex-

pressed in the form of choreography of movement in the

setting of a theater stage (choreography), and kinetics,

which is an exploration of the forces and stresses associat-

ed with movement (dancing gures).

The invention of the cinematograph at the end of the

century contributed to the creation of a new branch

of art – lm, which is the expression of motion pictures in

real time. Further technical inventions of the 21

century

(CGI, computer-generated images, 3D–5D images) expan-

ded the possibilities of artistic expression of lm narrative.

Technologies related to the information revolution also

had a signicant impact on contemporary architecture, al-

lowing one to its spatial trap, in which time existed only in

the sense of presentism (here and now). Thanks to compu-

ter animations, it is possible to show a static architectural

form as a continuous process of discovering its phenome-

non by the observer in time, and in the case of dynamic

forms of changing shape as a continuous sequence of mo-

ving images without losing the integrity and complexity

in their perception in the sense of eternalism (before and

after). It means that it is now possible to fully implement

the concept of time spatialization in architecture and create

structures that seek inspiration and explore the dimension

of time, i.e. the so-called time-based architecture.

The development of digital technologies and architectur-

al software allows to overcome the limitation of man’s per-

ception and analogue lm techniques based on recording

about 24 frames per second. Computer animation makes

possible the registration of changeability of the architectur-

al object without any frame rate limitations, because digital

simulations operate in the space of bits and not in the space

of the images. In computer simulations we are dealing with

a category of liquid animated architecture that can be ex-

perienced in an innite space-time continuum and can be

seen at any selected moment by stopping the time of the

simulation. Spatial simulations are based on dierent 3D

software of computer animation, e.g. Autodesk Maya, Lu-

mion, 3ds Max, Rhinoceros, CATIA, ArchiCAD, Artlantis,

SketchUp, Bryce, taking advantage of the potential of dig-

ital visualizations and special eects of these programmes.

Research goals and methods

The aims of the research were to determine how time

can be presented in architecture and how it can inuence

the shaping of architectural forms, and what means of ex-

pressing the dimension of time are most useful in architec-

tural design. The research was based on a critical analysis

of architectural visions exploring the time dimension from

the modernist revolution [2], [16] to the information revo-

lution [4], [10], [17], [18], and on a comparative analysis

of contemporary trends in shaping dynamic time-varying

forms, representing kinetic architecture.

The architectural forms in space-time were analyzed in

dierent aspects of structuralism, according to which all

existing objects exist in a network of structures [19]. Two

basic types of network have been distinguished, the rst

related to the functioning of the object in its spatial con-

text, and the second to the functioning of the object itself

without its interactions with the context. The rst network

of structures describes the mutual relations between the

observer, the object, and space-time. The process of time

spatializing was examined by analyzing the observer’s

movement and its impact on the expression of architec-

tural objects in space-time (kinaesthesia). The second one

denes the interrelations between the elements of objects,

the forces within them and space-time. These relations

were investigated based on the analysis of movements

and mutability of structural elements, the actions of forces

and their inuence on shaping of the spatial structures (ki-

nematics and kinetics). Subsequently, binary oppositions

(e.g. statics vs. dynamics, immobility vs. mobility, static

image vs. motion pictures) were dened, which became

the basis for a more complete analysis of the architecture

exploring the time dimension, referring to dierent de-

grees of mutability and dynamics of spatial structures and

related to dierent means of artistic expressions.

Research results:

concepts of spatialization of time and their impact

on the expression of architectural forms

The contemporary search for the expression of archi-

tecture, exploring the dimension of time, is a continuation

of the concept of Kandinsky, who explored the potential

of motion pictures as the best means of expressing the ob-

server’s movements and the dynamic transformation of an

architectural object in time. The dierence between past

and present explorations lies in the choice of other means

of expression, i.e. the transition from performative theater

performances to computer animations, which are virtual si-

mulations of the mutability of spatial structures over time.

The simulations refer to the four space-time dimen-

sions and address a wide range of mutability of spatial

structures. In the course of the research, the following

types of architecture were distinguished, exploring the

dimension of time, in conjunction with dierent types of

simulations of movement and mutability of spatial struc-

tures over time:

– kinaesthetic architecture: simulations of the obser-

ver’s movement and mutability of the spatial structures’

perception,

– kinematic architecture: simulations of mutability of

the states and geometries of the spatial structures,

– kinetic architecture: simulations of mutability of the

shapes and forces aecting the forms.

Kinaesthetic architecture:

simulations of the observer’s movement

and mutability of the spatial structures’ perception

Kinaesthesia is related to the perception of the position

of parts of the human body relative to each other and the

movement of the whole body in the context of its spatial

settings. The kinaesthetic sense of the human brain, which

120 Ada Kwiatkowska

The basic elements of the observer’s movement anima-

tion focus on the issues of the geometry of transit paths and

the dynamics of the observer’s movement. The geometric

shape of the path plays an important role, because the se-

quence of intersection lines in the architectural perspective

passes dierently depending on whether the path is straight

or curvilinear. Another important factor is whether the ob-

server is moving along a horizontal or vertical path, since

a change in elevation aects horizon line shifts, and the ex-

tent to which panoramic views open and close. The speed

of the observer’s movement also has a signicant impact on

the perception of space. A person moving on foot perceives

space dierently from, for example, a person driving a car.

In contradiction to showing form only from selected static

viewpoints in traditional architectural perspectives, simula-

tions of the observer’s movement in the virtual world allow

to see a form as a dynamic event taking place in the space-

time continuum and to better understand the interrelation-

ships between a man, form and its spatial context (Fig. 1).

The transit path as a kind of wormhole, forming around

a moving observer both in the real and virtual world, re-

veals important aspects of human perception related to the

mental representation of the directions of space and their

binary oppositions (e.g. forward or backward, up or down,

right or left movement), and the sense of orientation and

position of the human body in space (e.g. being in space

open or closed, inside or outside an architectural object). In

the process of creation of the spatial structures, many archi-

tects take into account the way a moving observer perceives

space, and the dynamic game of openings and closings in

architecture is addressed not so much to a static observer as

to an observer in motion. For example, in SANAA’s house

in a Plum Grove [21], the irregular perforation of the walls

of the house creates visual connections between its vario-

us internal spaces, as well as opening views to its external

surroundings. The complexity and richness of these views,

as well as the mutual visual interpenetration of internal and

external spaces, can only be experienced in the situation of

a moving observer.

Simulating the observer’s movement in space is not only

a tool supporting the conscious creation of an architectural

form as an event in time, but also a way of thinking about

the dynamics of the space itself. Architects often subordi-

determines the motor coordination of a man, is respon-

sible for the way in which a human being is involved in

relations with spatial settings. Every man is characterised

by the specic kinesphere [20], which determines the in-

dividual way of moving. There are essential dierences

between people in this matter, resulting from age, height,

or weight of their bodies, which inuence on the speed of

movement, horizon of view and perception of the space.

The interpretation of architecture in the aspect of kinaes-

thesia emphasises the importance of dynamic perception

of space in connection with man’s movement as the most

natural way of describing it. Therefore, the visualization

of an architectural object shown as a static image of an

architectural form in perspective is far from the way in

which a person perceives the space. Only animation of

images is capable of expressing the uxion and continui-

ty of seeing, characteristic for human brain. Furthermore,

spatial simulation allows the architect to better control

and verify design assumptions regarding the shaping of

the architectural form.

Computer animation as a means of expression can be

used to show an architectural object from the point of view

of a moving man. It is an extension of the lm technique

in which the camera follows the observer’s movement in

space. The computer simulation of the observer’s motion is

created around a transit path, a kind of wormhole that can

take many shapes and forms; for example, it can be straight

or curved, horizontal or vertical, open or closed, linear or

looped, single-level or multilevel. Transit paths are most

often associated with communication in the urban and ar-

chitectural spaces, such as streets, passages, promenades,

corridors, galleries, ramps, or stairs, which determine the

possible ways of the observer’s movement in space and

determine the directions of insight into this space.

The following important features of the architecture of

time

have been dened in terms of the phenomenon of kinae -

sthesia, which inuence the degrees of mutability of the

per ception of spatial structures:

– transit path geometry,

– dynamics of the observer’s movement along the tran-

sit path,

– orientation and position of the human body in space,

– dynamics of space ow along the transit path.

Fig. 1. Kinaesthesia: simulation of the observer‘s movement – a sequence of selected viewpoints in the space-time continuum

(drawings by A. Kwiatkowska)

Il. 1. Kinestezja: symulacja ruchu obserwatora – sekwencja wybranych punktów widzenia w kontinuum czasoprzestrzennym

(rys. A. Kwiatkowska)

Architecture of time: from motion picture to computer animation 121

nate the spatial composition to the transit path, being the

original core of the concept, which determines the form of

the object and generates the ow of space and events that

take place along the path. For example, the Möbius House,

along the Möbius strip, creating a looping space-time corri-

dor and aecting the observer’s movement inside the house.

Another example of a form of space ow dened by a tran-

sit path is Daniel Libeskind’s The Spiral Extension [22].

The body of this object follows a deconstructed dynamic

staircase, which is its central core and determines its shape.

Kinematic architecture: simulations of mutability

of the states and geometries of the spatial structures

Kinematics describes the geometry of motion in terms

of the position and trajectory of an object or its compo-

nents in space-time without taking into account the mass

and forces acting on the object. Kinematic analysis of spa-

tial structures involves the dynamics of changes in their

geometry over time, enabling the simulation of the muta-

bility of their shapes and the control of the transformation

processes of architectural objects.

Each form is created by setting in motion some element

of space, for example, a point, line, plane, or solid. This

movement determines the process of transformation of the

spatial structure from the germ to the nal shape of the

form. As was described by Paul Klee:

All pictorial form begins with that sets itself in motion

[…]. The point moves […] and the line comes into being

– the rst dimension. If the line shifts to form a plane,

we obtain a two-dimensional element. In the movement

from plane to spaces, the clash of planes gives rise to body

(three dimensional) […]. A summary of the kinetic ener-

gies which move the point into a line, the line into a plane,

and the plane into a spatial dimension (after: [23, p. 6]).

In the process of creation, the transition from a one-di-

mensional to a three-dimensional geometric form is tanta-

mount to simulation of the movement of its components.

This is due to the phenomenon of the structure of space

and the ways in which its geometric representation is ex-

pressed. Spatial continuity is realized in a smooth tran-

sition from a point through a line and plane to a solid.

In Kandinsky’s analysis of the geometric composition of

dynamic space-time systems [15], a point is dened as

the form with the smallest temporal extension and innite

connection possibilities in n-dimensional space. In archi-

tecture, a point is the result of the intersection of multiple

planes, e.g. the sharp end of a solid, while in music it cor-

responds to a single sound. A line is the trace of a point’s

movement along a linear track toward innity. The length

of the line is an expression of the extension of the form in

time. Linear forms and structures in architecture are equiv-

alent to lines in painting and note lines in music. A plane

is created by the movement of the line towards innity

in a direction other than itself. A eld is part of the plane

bounded by lines. A solid is formed by the movement of

a plane in a direction other than it designates, dening the

space inside and its external complement.

The following important features of architecture of

time have been dened in terms of the kinematics pheno-

menon, manifested in the mutability of the geometry of

spatial structures under the inuence of real or apparent

movement:

– exploration of the dynamism of the geometry of the

spatial structure,

– expression of variation of geometric rhythms,

– exploration of depth in architecture,

– expression of mutability of chiaroscuro exposure of

the architectural form,

– exploration of the mutability of acoustic space.

Architects are aware of the importance of these rela-

tionships and often look for the best formal means of ex-

pression to convey the dynamism of the spatial structure

and the kinetic energy trapped in it. Revealing the geo-

metric forming lines and stress lines in the structure itself

is not always possible, but their signs can be seen in ab-

stract sketches of architectural objects drawn by Daniel

Libeskind, Peter Eisenman, Bernard Tschumi and Lebbeus

Woods [24]. Generative design tools are best for projec-

tion of motion and time in architecture, in the sense of

generating real or apparent simulations of the mutability

of states and geometry of spatial structures that express the

so-called kinematic architecture (Fig. 2). Generative forms

are characterized by machine learning and algorithmic

intelligence resulting from information management using

Fig. 2. Kinematics: simulation of the movement of cubes and projection of the mutability of the geometry of the spatial structures

– a sequence of selected frames in the space-time continuum (drawings by A. Kwiatkowska)

Il. 2. Kinematyka: symulacja ruchu sześcianów i projekcja zmienności geometrii struktur przestrzennych

– sekwencja wybranych klatek w kontinuum czasoprzestrzennym (rys. A. Kwiatkowska)

122 Ada Kwiatkowska

various computational models. Their shapes and geometry

are the result of the mathematical operations used. These

forms are dened by three basic parameters: […] initia-

tor (starting form), generator (set of copies and mutations

of the starting form) and rule (algorithm for ordering the

structural elements of the starting form) [11, p. 101].

The manifestation of geometric rhythms in architec-

ture by exposing regular spatial intervals, delineated by

rhythmic surface divisions or accented by the rhythmic

order of columns, is a kind of time measuring, giving the

space dynamism and setting it in motion. An example of

such a dynamic composition is the Grapevine Vibrational

project by GT2P [25], which is an expression of the real

mutability of the geometry of spatial structures, referring

to the pattern of a dense avenue of trees, expressed in the

form of overlapping systems of trellises, vibrating under

the inuence of the wind and creating a kind of space-time

passage, measured by a specic rhythm of the spacing of

the pillars and the mutability of the geometry of the grids

of the trellises under the inuence of the blowing wind.

The simulation of the variation of the geometry of spatial

structures based on rhythmic intervals is particularly vis-

ible in parametric algorithmic design. For example, the

concept of Wave Interference by GT2P [25], which is an

expression of the apparent mutability of the geometry of

structures, dened by mathematical equations interfering

with the parameters of spatial units, refers to the illusion of

rhythmic movement of waves on the surface of an object.

The exploration of depth in spatial composition is an-

other means of expression of motion and time in architec-

ture. There are various possibilities of exposing depth, for

example by creating a linear structure (passage, gallery,

corridor), dening two places in time: here and now – the

point where the observer stands, and before and after – the

point on which the observer focuses his or her attention

distant in time (forward or backward movement) or thro-

ugh the perforation of the walls (puncture, hole, opening

in the wall), allowing for confrontation and manifestation

of the distance of the foreground – here and now from

the background visible through the opening – before and

after, and also by manipulating the sharpness of vision or

blurring the shapes of objects, suggesting their distance

in time and space. Experimenting with the sharpness of

the perceived architectural form is a very impressionistic

means of expression, the potential of which can be seen in

the Blur Building project by Diller & Scodio [26]. The

depth of architectural space is shown by the contrasting

sharpness of the pier in the foreground and the fog-blur-

red building in the background. Computer animations are

the best tools for visualizing the spatialization of time in

concepts that explore the linearity of structures, play with

the opening of objects to the context or or play with the

sharpness of objects’ contours.

Consideration of the time-varying exposure of the chia-

roscuro of an architectural form often lies at the origin of

the way of shaping and sculpting the tectonics of its spa-

tial structure, as well as the manner and degree of perfo-

ration of the solid itself. In the creative process, computer

simulation of a solid’s exposure to sunlight is the best tool

for analysing and controlling design decisions in terms

of shaping the form, allowing to track dynamic changes

in the perception of its plasticity and spatiality (Fig. 3).

The project of the Louvre in Abu Dhabi, designed by Jean

Nouvel [22], is a very impressive example of simulation

and modelling of spatial structure in search of the dynam-

ic projection of light and shadow and the geometric pat-

tern of the dome’s surface, the perception of which varies

over time with the change of the angle of inclination of the

sun’s rays during the day.

The exploration of the acoustic space through a specic

way of shaping the surfaces of architectural interiors and

the conscious creation of acoustic eects associated with

it (e.g., echo, resonance, amplication or silencing of so-

und) is the creation of architecture immersed not so much

in space as in time, because the propagation and reection

of sound waves are temporal events. The idea of designing

an architectural interior as an expression of the sonic po-

tential of a space is similar to composing a piece of music,

the essential components of which are the dynamics of

the loudness of sounds, rhythmics, i.e. the ordering of the

sequence of sounds in time, as well as melodics and colors

related to the pitch and timbre of sounds. Computer simu-

lation of the propagation and reection of sound waves

from the surface of an architectural object allows to verify

how the geometry of the spatial structure aects the cha-

racteristics of the acoustic space in its interiors, including

Fig. 3. Kinematics: simulation of time-varying chiaroscuro projection and projection of the mutability of the geometry states of spatial structures

– a sequence of selected frames in a space-time continuum (drawings by A. Kwiatkowska)

Il. 3. Kinematyka: symulacja zmiennej w czasie projekcji światłocieniowej i projekcja zmienności stanów geometrii struktur przestrzennych

– sekwencja wybranych klatek w kontinuum czasoprzestrzennym (rys. A. Kwiatkowska)

Architecture of time: from motion picture to computer animation 123

the determination of the loudness, rhythm and timbre of

sounds. In turn, the acoustic characteristics alone, without

original knowledge of the appearance of the space, make

it possible to estimate the distances and heights of the in-

terior of a spatial structure and to reconstruct its geometric

shapes. The idea of designing an architectural form as an

expression of its aesthetic and sound qualities implements

Kandinsky’s postulate about the necessity of creating

a unity of visual and acoustic space, that is, a synthesis

of ar chitecture and music. Such a unity of sensory eects

can be found in the interactive installation Edit Sp(l)line,

vilion [22], in which the exhibition path is combined with

real-time animation and a dynamic and expressive projec-

tion of lights, sounds, vibrations and shapes.

Kinetic architecture:

simulations of mutability of the shapes and forces

affecting the forms

Kinetics denes the activity of objects under the inu-

ence of various forces, describing their static and dynamic

states. It denes how an object and its components work

under the pressures of internal and external forces. Kinetic

analysis is the basic tool for describing the ow of data

and energy in a spatial structure, allowing the control of

the operation of the structural system and the simulation

of the movement of an object or its parts, as well as the

mutability of shapes over time.

Kinetic forms are the expression of forces that interact

with architectural objects and generate the movement of

entire objects or their components, aecting the variation

of their shapes or positions in time and space. The inter-

action of forces can be taken into account in the form cre-

ation phase in search of the best shape expressing specic

forces and stresses, or it can be a kind of modus operandi,

i.e. the basic way of functioning of a form moving in real

time. According to Kandinsky’s concept [15], composi -

tion in painting or architecture means the organization of

living forces that reveal themselves in the form of tensions

resulting from the pressure of forces on materials, which

determines the shape of painting or architectural forms.

Computer simulations allow to verify the impact of vario-

us external and internal forces on matter, as well as to stu-

dy their impact on the mutability of the shapes of spatial

structures (Fig. 4). While in the virtual space there are no

restrictions with regard to the creation of moving archi-

tectural objects, in the existing reality – the implemen-

tation of such concepts is associated with many dicul-

ties, resulting from the laws of physics (e.g. the principles

of thermodynamics, the law of friction, the inuence of

wind, etc.) and with high operating costs associated with

increased energy consumption needed to keep the objects

in motion. In the near future, due to the use of intelligent

technologies and lightweight materials in construction, it

will be possible to go beyond the existing limitations of

kinetic forms. Intelligent spatial structures of the informa-

tion age will be able to move, transform and change their

shapes under the inuence of acting forces in real time.

The evolution of forms in 21

century architecture,

expressed in the transition from stable to dynamic struc-

tures, reinforces the idea of time-based architecture, i.e.

architecture exploring the dimension of time. Form as an

artefact, characterized by an invariable, stable structure, is

replaced by form as an event, revealing itself in space as

an interactive and time-transformable structure [27]. The

basic tools for the creation of dynamic kinetic forms, re-

lated to the simulation of the mutability of shapes and the

forces acting on them, focus on the problem of controlling

the ows of energy and information in spatial structures

by encoding, controlling and interacting with them.

The following tools for creating architecture of time

have been dened in terms of the phenomenon of kinetics,

which have a signicant impact on the mutability of the

shapes of spatial structures and the movement of their com-

ponents:

– coding of internal “living forces” aecting the spatial

structure,

– interactive control of the ow of energy and informa-

tion in the spatial structure,

– responsiveness and transformation of spatial struc-

tures under the inuence of external forces.

The coding of kinetic forms is based on algorithmic de-

sign, i.e. on the development of a set of instructions den-

ing the mutability of architectural objects in a certain time

under the inuence of acting internal forces, using such

programming languages as text editors of architectural pro-

grams (e.g. Python, Java, C#, Ruby, etc.) or object- oriented

visual scripting languages (e.g. Grasshopper 3D, Autodesk

Dynamo, Rhino, Visual Basic.NET Revit, etc.). The forces

Fig. 4. Kinetics: simulation of the mutability of shapes of a growing spatial structure over time

– a sequence of selected frames in the space-time continuum (drawings by A. Kwiatkowska)

Il. 4. Kinetyka: symulacja zmienności kształtów wzrastającej struktury przestrzennej w czasie

– sekwencja wybranych klatek w kontinuum czasoprzestrzennym (rys. A. Kwiatkowska)

124 Ada Kwiatkowska

that are most often considered refer to the principles of

growth, mutation, deformation or transformation of spatial

structures [28]. This means that designers try to dene liv-

ing forces similar to the genetic codes of living organisms,

generating and stimulating their structural transformations.

For example, the Fab Tree Hab: Living Graft project by

TerreformONE [25] expresses the idea of sustainable de-

velopment and growth of the habitat modelled on living

plant organisms. Another example is the project He Shot

Me Down, created by R&SIE(N) [25], showing architec-

tural structures as hybrid landscapes that change under the

inuence of programmed biomechanical forces that dene

the movement of their components and aect the muta-

bility of their volumes. Computer simulations of possible

transformations of architectural objects under the inuence

of acting forces simultaneously allow for full control of the

work of their structural systems.

Steering kinetic form means control of the ow of in-

formation and energy in the spatial structure by means of

a command interface and sensors that force the movement

of their components (e.g. rotational vs. progressive, recti-

linear vs. curvilinear, uniform vs. variable, periodic vs.

non-periodic motion etc.). Examples of such interactive,

command-responsive objects are Muscle ReCongured and

Interactive Wall, created by Hyperbody Research Group

[29]. These structures change shapes in response to user

commands or contextual stimuli received by sensors. Com-

puter simulations allow to create and verify control systems

for kinetic forms and show how spatial structures respond

to user commands and varying sensor parameters (Fig. 5).

Other interesting implementations of kinetic architecture,

as examples of interactive control of selected elements of

the spatial structure for functional reasons, include movable

façades (e.g. One Ocean Pavilion in Yeosu, South Korea

– arch. SOMA, Kiefer Technic Showroom in Styria, Austria

– arch. Ernst Giselbrecht + Partner, Bund Finance Center in

Shanghai, China – arch. Foster & Partners), movable roofs

(e.g. National Stadium in Warsaw, Poland – arch. JSK Ar-

chitects, Mercedes-Benz Stadium in Atlanta, USA – arch.

HOK) or movable cubature elements of buildings (e.g.

Shari-ha House in Tehran, Iran – arch. Alireza Taghaboni).

Interactions with kinetic forms require users’ access to spa-

tial structure control systems [17]. Users have control over

the transformation of spatial structures through command

interfaces. A more complex level of interaction with kinetic

forms is associated with users’ access to the source codes of

spatial structures not only in the creation phase but also in

the exploitation phase, allowing them to be redesigned and

changed according to the needs of users.

The source codes of kinetic forms and the command

interfaces of the motion management programs also al-

low the generation of variable shapes of spatial structures

and the control of their movement under the inuence of

external forces. Thus, they enable control over the pro-

cesses of their adaptation to changing environmental con-

ditions, imitating the way in which living organisms adapt

to changes occurring in the environment. An example of

such a solution is the Variomatic house, designed by Kas

Oosterhuis [30], in which, in addition to interactive control

of shape variation by users according to their needs, the

architect also included in the code of the spatial structure

its reactivity to changes occurring in the environment and

adaptation to dynamic external forces by automatically re-

ducing or increasing its volume or transforming the shape

of the roof in response to changing parameters of wind

pressure, air temperature or humidity in real time. Other

examples of the responsiveness of kinetic architecture to

external forces include movable façades, façade panels

and blinds that open and close depending on the intensi-

ty of sunlight and the temperature dierence outside and

inside the buildings (e.g. M9-C Housing Building in Pa-

ris – arch. BP Architectures, Kolding University, Denmark

– arch. Henning Larsen, Al Bahar Tower in Abu Dhabi,

United Arab Emirates – arch. Aedas) or movable cubature

elements of buildings that follow the sunlight (Dynamic

Tower in Dubai, United Arab Emirates Arabic – arch. Da-

vid Fisher) or moving under the inuence of wind pressure

forces (Squall Tower – arch. Hayri Atak, Kaan Kılıçdağ,

Büşra Köksal, Kübra Türk).

Discussion and conclusions

The information revolution enriches the architectural

design process with new computer simulation tools that

enable the creation, display and control of the entire pro-

cess of generating dierent geometries of spatial structures

Fig. 5. Kinetics: simulation of the mutability of shapes of an interactive and transformable spatial structure in time

– a sequence of selected frames in the space-time continuum (drawings by A. Kwiatkowska)

Il. 5. Kinetyka: symulacja zmienności kształtów interaktywnej i transformowalnej struktury przestrzennej w czasie

– sekwencja wybranych klatek w kontinuum czasoprzestrzennym (rys. A. Kwiatkowska)

Architecture of time: from motion picture to computer animation 125

as an animation of the abstract movement of one-, two-

and three-dimensional elements in the unlimited digital

space-time, leading to the creation of more complex forms

of kinematic architecture compared to pre-digital forms

based only on the idea of the initial, intermediate and nal

states of their geometric transformation. These tools allow

to generate an unlimited number of variations of geome-

try states of evolved forms and to show smooth transfor-

mations of architectural objects from simple to complex

structures, from embryonic to mature forms.

In the case of the expression of kinaesthetic architectu-

ral forms, computer animation allows for a smooth simu-

lation of the sequence of views seen by a moving observer,

while also allowing for the reconstruction of the view of

the forms in their spatial context at arbitrarily selected po-

ints of time. To shape the forms of kinematic architecture,

the use of computer simulation means the ability to reco-

gnize hidden dimensions of space, due to insight into its

internal structure. This allows a better understanding of

how spatial structures work, as well as the control and ma-

nagement of spatial objects through access to information

about the characteristics and properties of these structu-

res, making it possible to interact with their selected pa-

rameters, adapt to changes in the environment, adjust to

users’ needs or verify the correctness of changes initiated

by the architect or user. In the case of expressing forms of

kinetic architecture, computer simulations are a sine qua

non for generating and controlling the movement of the

entire structure or its components in time and space. All

these processes reinforce the idea of architectural form as

a form that is dynamic and transformed over time.

Computer simulation seems to be the best tool to express

the essence of the architecture of time. This tool can be

used both in the process of creation and exploitation of

spatial structures, allowing to simulate, control and ma-

nage their operation. At the same time, computer anima-

tion is closest to the way in which a human perceives the

continuity of space-time, allowing for a more complete

presentation of the architectural form as a uid sequence

of images and views, changing along with the moving ob-

server. One can risk the thesis that computer simulation,

like the discovery of perspective in the Renaissance, will

not only illustrate the form in a dynamic approach but will

also inuence the way of designing, and will also contri-

bute to the emergence of a new generation of forms of

kinetic architecture, which are the expression of uid and

streaming architecture.

The development of human civilization is largely as-

sociated with the conquest of space (e.g. the creation of

empires, discoveries of new continents, expeditions into

space, etc.), however, at the end of the 20

century, in-

terest in the conquest of time and information began to

prevail. These two dimensions have become particularly

important in many scientic disciplines of the 21

century.

Issues of time and information have also become central

to architecture. Real-time transformations of architectural

objects will be possible thanks to the use of intelligent

materials and the integration of spatial structures with

computer hardware and software based on articial intel-

ligence and deep learning, generating changes in the sha-

pe and function of spatial structures over time [18]. Users

will explore a virtual representation of the spatial setting

of their lives, similar to the way that gamers can navigate

a virtual video game environment in real time. Explora-

tion of the real world will be integrated with the possibi-

lities of discovering, controlling, managing, interacting,

adapting, creating and transforming its representation in the

virtual world, which will ultimately strengthen the trend of

medialization and virtualization of architecture.

Due to the high complexity of smart and transformable

spatial structures and their dependence on technological

reliability, a number of associated risks can already be ex-

pected from the loss of human control over their initiated

processes of change over time and the possibility of arti-

cial intelligence taking control of space. Likewise, the thre-

ats associated with the introduction of autonomous cars in

road trac in the near future, partially human-controlled or

self-steering spatial structures representing the architecture

of time will be able to lead not only to various incidents

and collisions, but will also contribute to the alienation of

humans in the built-environment, due to their total depen-

dence on smart technologies and the inability to understand

the processes that control them. Further research on the ar-

chitecture of time will require taking into account the role

of AI in managing space-time and operating on large sets

of information (Big Data), which are an immanent feature

of smart and transformable space-time structures.

Translated by

Ada Kwiatkowska

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Abstract

Architecture of time: from motion picture to computer animation

The architecture of the digital era, exploring the dimension of time, refers to the concept of so-called time-based art. Present computer technolo-

gies allow one to simulate the space-time transformation of architectural objects connected with observer’s movement and to create dynamic movable

spatial structures by applying smart materials and technologies to architecture.

The purposes of the research are to analyse the inuence of the concept of time on the shaping of architectural forms and the directions of the de-

velopment of architectural forms determined by technologies discovered during the industrial and information revolutions (lm techniques, computer

visualisations, simulations, and animations). Based on the structural analysis of dynamic mutual relations between the observer, the architectural

object, and the context, connected with comparative and critical analysis of modern trends, dierent types of architecture of time are distinguished.

These types are derivatives of the expression of time in three-dimensional space and assumptions related to the degree of changeability and dynamics

of the spatial structures (kinaesthetic, kinematic, and kinetic forms), and depend on the expression tools used in the creation and simulation of the

mutability of forms.

Computer animation is not only a tool, but also a way of thinking about the architectural form as an object immersed in space-time, therefore it

will inuence the way of designing and contribute to the emergence of a new generation of forms in the near future. Time-based architecture of the

information age will explore the idea of streaming architecture.

Key words: kinematics, kinetics, architectural form, kinaesthesia, space-time simulations

Streszczenie

Architektura czasu: od ruchomego obrazu do animacji komputerowej

Architektura ery cyfrowej, eksplorująca wymiar czasu, nawiązuje do koncepcji sztuki tzw. time-based art. Współczesne technologie komputero-

we pozwalają na symulację zmienności form architektonicznych i ich percepcji w powiązaniu z ruchem obserwatora w przestrzeni oraz tworzenie

dynamicznych struktur przestrzennych dzięki zastosowaniu inteligentnych materiałów i technologii w architekturze.

Celem badań było określenie wpływu koncepcji czasu na kształtowanie form architektonicznych oraz kierunków rozwoju form architektonicz-

nych wyznaczonych przez technologie odkryte podczas rewolucji przemysłowej i informacyjnej (techniki lmowe, wizualizacje komputerowe,

symulacje, animacje). Na podstawie strukturalnej analizy dynamicznych relacji między obserwatorem, obiektem architektonicznym a kontekstem,

oraz porównawczej i krytycznej analizy współczesnych trendów wyróżniono różne typy architektury czasu. Typy te są pochodnymi ekspresji czasu

w trójwymiarowej przestrzeni oraz założeń związanych ze stopniem zmienności i dynamiki struktur przestrzennych (formy kinestetyczne, kinema-

tyczne i kinetyczne) i zależą od narzędzi ekspresji użytych w tworzeniu i symulacji zmienności form.

Animacja komputerowa jest nie tylko narzędziem, ale też sposobem myślenia o formie architektonicznej jako obiekcie zanurzonym w czaso -

przestrzeni, dlatego będzie wpływać na sposób projektowania, a także przyczyni się do pojawienia się nowej generacji form w najbliższej przyszłoś-

ci. Time-based architecture oparta na wymiarze czasu architektura epoki informacji będzie eksplorowała ideę architektury streamingu.

Słowa kluczowe: kinematyka, kinetyka, forma architektoniczna, kinestezja, symulacje czasoprzestrzenne