Educational spaces for students with autism spectrum disorders

Julia Pogoda, Joanna Majczyk

doi:10.37190/arc220307

Abstract

This study aims to present the relationship between the architectural surroundings and the needs of children with autism spectrum disorders in the educational environment. Therefore, it began with identifying the special needs of children with ASDs (Autism Spectrum Disorder) and the ways in which these needs are addressed in school designs carried out in the USA and Great Britain. The study also shows a few Polish attempts to create autism-friendly schools. Finally, an attempt was made to extend the paradigms of “universal design” with activities necessary to increase the comfort of using educational institutions by children with autism spectrum disorders.

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2022

3(71)

Julia Pogoda*, Joanna Majczyk**

Educational spaces for students with autism spectrum disorders

Introduction and state of research

Schools are basic educational and care institutions in

every community – they are a meeting place, a place to

gain knowledge, and often they are a local centre also for

people not related to them. Their main function, however,

is education and preparation of children to function in so-

ciety. One of the determinants of the education process is

the way in which a specic school building is designed.

In a well-formed space, not only is it easier to assimilate

knowledge, but also the level of well-being of students

and the ability to interact and build relationships increas-

es. Given the huge role that schools play in human de-

velopment, it is crucial to ensure that buildings in which

they are located provide equal opportunities to every user.

This is of particular importance for children with autism

spectrum disorders – an appropriate environment can sig-

nicantly support the therapeutic process and aect their

functioning later in life [1].

The conditions prevailing in the overwhelming number

of Polish schools and kindergartens make it dicult, and

in some cases completely prevent children with autism

spectrum disorders from education on an equal basis. The

main problems occurring in this type of institutions are:

inadequate lighting, wrong choice of colours, lack of zon-

ing and their appropriate marking. Often, the classroom

equipment is also not adapted to the dierent needs of its

users. The inspections carried out in 2019 showed that

publicly accessible schools educating students with au-

tism […] struggled with space diculties, rarely had the

opportunity to allocate special rooms for revalidation or

so-called quiet areas [2, p. 11]

. Limiting distracting stim-

uli, as well as creating places to isolate from excess stim-

ulants allows children to concentrate on their activities for

a longer time, increases independence and a sense of secu-

rity. In today’s world saturated with sensory stimuli, it is

also justied to introduce similar solutions in workplaces,

public facilities, as well as on an urban scale.

A pioneer in research on design for people with autism

spectrum disorders is Magda Mostafa, who for over 20

years has been describing the relationship between the

functioning of autistic people and the space they live in

[3], [4]. So far, she has developed numerous designs and

guides, but most of all she has created a set of principles

supporting inclusive design (ASPECTSS™) [4]. Refer-

ring to the research of psychiatrists, Mostafa dened the

essence of design for people with autism spectrum disor-

ders, which is the control of the user-sensory environment

relationship with its sounds, textures, patterns, shapes and

chiaroscuro [3, p. 144]. Later research focused on the indi-

vidual discussion of “sensory phenomena”, paying atten-

tion, among others, to the need for special lighting design

[5], as well as a conscious selection of nishing materials

[6]. It was found that students with ASDs feel safe and

stable in buildings with a simple, orderly and predictable

interior layout [7].

Based on the seven recommendations of Mostafa (acous -

tics, spatial sequencing, escape space, compartmentaliza-

tion, transition space, sensor zoning, safety [3]), in 2019

American scientists developed detailed guidelines for the

design of vocational centres for people with autism spec-

trum disorders. It was also noted that the Americans with

Disabilities Act denes the standards of construction ac-

cessible to people with limited physical abilities, but it is

It is worth noting that architectural solutions used to minimize the

eects related to sensory integration problems do not adversely aect

children with no autism spectrum disorders, and may have a positive

impact on their functioning.

* ORCID: 0000-0001-8131-6231. Faculty of Architecture, Wro-

cław University of Science and Technology, Poland.

** ORCID

: 0000-0002-7660-3161. Faculty of Architecture, Wrocław

University of Science and Technology, Poland, e-mail: joanna. majczyk

pwr.edu.pl

DOI: 10.37190/arc220307

Published in open access. CC BY NC ND license

70 Julia Pogoda, Joanna Majczyk

not a sucient indicator for design for people with au-

tism spectrum disorders [8]. Based on, among others, the

above-mentioned recommendations, Tomasz Bojęć, Joan-

na Erbel and Marta Wierusz discussed the basic principles

of design for people with emotional and/or developmental

disorders, such as autism, ADHD or dyslexia [9]. In 2017,

Keith McAllister and Sean Sloan described experimental

workshops where children with ASDs consulted school de-

signs. As a result, school rooms were grouped in a non-stan-

dard way, however, increasing the sense of security and

comfort of sensory-sensitive children [10]. In Poland, there

are no publications on the design of educational institutions

for children with autism spectrum disorders, but the topic

is taken up during architectural studies, as reported by, for

example, Maria Bielak-Zasadzka and Agnieszka Bugno-

-Ja nik from the Silesian University of Technology [11].

Autism spectrum

Autism, often mistakenly called a disease, is a holistic

developmental disorder according to the ICD-10 interna-

tional classication. We can distinguish childhood autism,

which is diagnosed up to the age of three, atypical autism

– if the symptoms appear later, and Asperger’s syndrome,

when there are no speech disorders [12]. The newer classi-

cation, ICD-11, refers to autism spectrum disorders [13].

The aforementioned types of disorders are listed on the

scale depending on the severity of symptoms, but they do

not have separate names. This classication method high-

lights how diverse the autistic community is. There are

highly functioning people, often with above-average IQ,

but also people with serious diculties in communication

and independent functioning [14, p. 13]. Each of these

people needs a dierent degree of support.

Although the disorder has dierent degrees of severity,

which of course dierentiates the symptoms, there are fea-

tures that characterize people with autism spectrum disor-

ders. One of them is the diculty in recognizing emotions

[15], although, contrary to popular belief, it is not a total

inability – most autistic people are able to read simple

emotions, such as sadness. The problem begins with more

complex emotions such as irritation or sarcasm. Confu-

sion can also be caused by subtle gestures – for example,

a blink of an eye or a wry face. Some people with autism,

however, are able to learn to recognize ways of expressing

emotions, it is simply not a natural skill for them as it is

for neurotypical people.

Another characteristic sign of autism is a greater in-

terest in inanimate objects than in humans [16]. It is of-

ten possible to observe children with autism spectrum

disorders arranging objects in a tower or in a linear ar-

rangement, which is caused by their perceived need for

repeatability and predictability [17]. Children may not

feel the dierence when the people around them change

(e.g. when the class is taken over by another teacher), but

it is very likely that a change in the schedule of activities

to which they are accustomed will cause anxiety or anger.

Another factor inuencing the functioning of people

with autism spectrum disorders is high sensitivity to sen-

sory stimuli. Each impulse coming from the environment

is perceived more clearly and more intensely, and with

the simultaneous lack of the ability to selectively perceive

them, functioning in public spaces becomes a huge chal-

lenge. Children with autism often perceive sounds more

clearly, although sometimes they do not react to them at

all. In the past, they were often misdiagnosed as deaf for

this reason [18]. Instead, they are able to pick up very soft

sounds that are ignored by neurotypical people. They also

have a specic texture preference, which applies to the

items that surround them. Smooth surfaces resembling

natural textures are usually perceived as pleasant. Re-

search published in 2012 also showed that in the case of

textures classied as pleasant or neutral, subsequent ex-

posure causes a similar reaction, but in the case of further

contact with the texture indicated by the participants of the

study as unpleasant, the negative reaction intensies [19].

People with autism spectrum disorders are often unable

to ignore stimuli from the environment, such as ashing

lights, fan noise or other reverberations, which often lead

to over-stimulation, which in turn leads to strong emo-

tions or panic attacks in children. In such situations, it is

important to rst try to prevent them by providing a place

without excess stimulants where the child can hide, and to

provide a space for safe emotional discharge once overex-

posure to external factors has occurred. In an environment

full of stimulants and not providing safe hideouts, such as

schools that are not adapted to people with autism spec-

trum disorders, it is dicult for a child to stay focused,

which exacerbates the dierences between neurotypical

and autistic children.

Design for autistic people

Autism has so far been a misunderstood disorder and

although it aects an estimated 1 in 100 people in Europe

[2], it is still not included in accessibility regulations.

Adapting designs to autistic people is not a common prac-

tice, and there are relatively few specialists conducting re-

search on this topic. While taking into account the needs

of people with physical disabilities in architectural and ur-

ban designs, especially in public facilities, is now obvious

– thanks to clearly dened requirements – there is still no

similar awareness or ocial guidelines for autism-friendly

design. Autism is a spectrum, so formulating design prin-

ciples is not an easy task, but it is worth the eort, because

introducing appropriate solutions can signicantly aect

the functioning of people aected by this disorder [2].

There are two main trends in designing for people with

autism spectrum disorders. The rst one is the neurotypical

approach, which is based on the weakened generalization

ability

in autistic people [20]. The design assumptions are

based on the hypothesis that people with autism spectrum

disorders staying in spaces with a signicantly limited

amount of sensory stimuli will not be able to apply the skills

Generalization of a stimulus is a phenomenon in which a reaction

conditioned on an experimental stimulus also manifests itself in relation

to many other stimuli present in the environment; reaction to similar

stimuli in the same way; the strength of the reaction is determined by the

similarity of stimuli (generalization gradient).

Educational spaces for students with autism spectrum disorders 71

acquired there to other spaces. This is particularly import-

ant in the case of educational facilities, where we assim-

ilate the most knowledge, also practical knowledge, and

shape habits. Schools designed in the neurotypical trend

are to map places and create situations with which autistic

children may come into contact outside the institution.

An example of a facility designed according to a neu-

rotypical approach is the Morris-Union Jointure Commis-

sion’s Developmental Learning Center by USA Architects

in Warren, near New York [21]. The main school corri-

dor imitates a typical busy street, full of service premises,

among which you can nd a bank, shops (Fig. 1), as well

as a number of dierent types of public toilets. Learning

everyday activities is an essential element of therapy,

but it is hard to resist the impression that a mock-up of

city life in the school building may make it dicult to

concentrate and introduce unnecessary confusion. Oppo-

nents of this trend are of a similar opinion, and among

the disadvantages of this method, they also list the multi-

tude of colours and textures, a hazy functional system or,

paradoxically, hindering the generalization of the function

that the school performs [23]. What is more, the interior

design follows the style of postmodernism, with eclecti-

cism, accumulation of random forms, as well as a certain

exaggeration dicult to perceive for children with autism

spectrum disorders written into its genetic code.

Another project mapping the neurotypical environment

is Celebrate the Children School in Denville, USA. As an

integrated school, it has facilities for disabled people, but

it also deliberately duplicates many solutions from public

schools. Such behaviour is again argued with the need to

improve generalization and adaptation of children to func-

tion at universities and at work. Analysing the functioning

of kindergartens and public schools, it can be observed

that many of them do not provide sucient conditions,

even for neurotypical children [24] – inadequate acous-

tics or lighting in classrooms signicantly impede the ac-

quisition of knowledge. Therefore, when designing in the

neurotypical trend, one has to make a choice whether one

wants to reproduce the averaged existing environments

or an ideal, model school. In the rst case, a not entirely

friendly learning environment is created for children, but

similar to the one where they will end up after complet-

ing their education. In the second version, generalization

is made dicult as most schools do not meet the model

standards. The key question to be asked is: should chil-

dren with disabilities be taught to adapt to inappropriate

conditions, or should they be able to use spaces that are

comfortable and inclusive at every stage of their lives?

The second trend in designing for children with autism

spectrum disorders diers from the neurotypical approach

and takes into account their high sensory sensitivity with

particular care. The concepts of this trend create sensory

dierentiated spaces that enable the gradual development

of adaptive skills of children with autism. An example of

the implementation of an educational institution in the

sensory design trend is the Pond Meadows integrated

school in Guildford, Great Britain, designed by DSDHA

(Fig. 2). It is a single-story building, which signicantly

reduces the number of architectural barriers. Spatial se-

quencing is clearly visible – the school consists of three

parts, diering in the number of sensory stimuli – ranging

from the generally accessible common part to classrooms

requiring concentration, which are additionally arranged

according to age categories. Each of the zones is orga-

nized around an internal courtyard, which provides addi-

tional lighting for the school, but can also act as a hideout.

Hideouts constitute an essential part of any autism-friend-

ly space – they are places to rest from excess stimuli. Like

the transition zone, which connects spheres with dierent

levels of limitation of sensory factors, hideouts should re-

main sensory-neutral. It is also recommended to diversify

them so that they can be a place of isolation, but also of

group interactions in a safe space. Green courtyards intro-

duce vegetation to the interior of the school and allow for

self-stimulation – observing the shadows cast by plants or

touching their textures. The classrooms are located along

the outer perimeter of the building, which allows for the

optimization of access to natural light and ventilation, as

well as direct access to safe outdoor spaces, constituting

a potential hideout. The alternately falling and rising shape

of the roof aects the acoustic comfort in the building and

the dierentiation of room heights – those with a lower

height are characterized by a limited number of stimuli.

Fig. 1. Warren/NJ, USA, Morris-Union Jointure Commission’s

DLC school corridor (designed by USA Architects)

(photo by R. Faulkner, source: [22])

Il. 1. Warren/NJ, USA, korytarz szkoły Morris-Union Jointure

Commission’s DLC (proj. USA Architects)

(fot. R. Faulkner, źródło: [22])

72 Julia Pogoda, Joanna Majczyk

Fig. 2. Guildford, Great Britain, Pond Meadows school:

a) ground level layout (©DSDHA, source: [25]),

b) inside corridor (photo by ©Timothy Soar),

c) entry zone (photo by ©Timothy Soar), d) sectional view (designed by ©DSDHA, source: [25])

Il. 2. Guildford, Wielka Brytania, szkoła Pond Meadow:

a) rzut przyziemia (©DSDHA, źródło: [25]),

b) korytarz wewnętrzny (fot. ©Timothy Soar),

c) strefa wejściowa (fot. ©Timothy Soar), d) przekrój poprzeczny (proj. ©DSDHA, źródło: [25])

Educational spaces for students with autism spectrum disorders 73

When describing the sensory approach, it is worth pre-

senting the work of Simon Humphreys. The British ar-

chitect has designed many specialized facilities for autis-

tic people. One of them is the Thomas Bewick School in

Newcastle (Fig. 3).

In addition to the previously discussed guidelines re-

sulting indirectly from the principles of universal design,

Humphreys emphasizes proportion and proxemics, intro-

ducing, among others, the golden ratio in his designs. This

solution helps maintain harmony and a sense of order,

as well as repeatability, which is desired by people with

autism spectrum disorders. On the other hand, rounded

“spiral” walls are designed to soften the corners and en-

sure smooth transitions between spaces and safe commu-

nication. The school’s corridors, situated around internal

courtyards, allow for a permanent, external point of refer-

ence that facilitates locating oneself in the building. The

invariable features of his designs include moderation in

the choice of colours, arrangement of hideouts and special

care for acoustic conditions. The architect also supports

the introduction of a large amount of natural light into

the rooms, but stipulates the need to diuse it in order to

avoid excessive contrasts [27].

Due to the diculties in social interactions, spaces for

autistic people should be relatively large so that it is pos-

ble to maintain physical distance, while also maintaining

comfortable acoustic conditions. In the case of schools, it is

reasonable to design space in such a way as to enable dis-

creet supervision, not disrupting the functioning of users.

Both the neurotypical approach and the sensory approach

are based on a comprehensive analysis of the needs of peo-

ple with autism spectrum disorders. Both approaches, apart

from clear values, also have disadvantages. Never theless,

in recent years there has been a signicant increase in in-

terest in autism-friendly architecture. Further research may

include the development of existing trends, their synthesis

or the development of a completely dierent approach.

Examples of solutions for educational facilities

for autistic children in Poland

In the 1980s, when autism diagnostics was only started

in Poland, the statistics showed the occurrence of this dis-

order in 2–4 per 10,000 people. Currently, we can observe

the so-called autism epidemic – an increasing number of

people are diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders each

year. At the moment, the disorder occurs in 1 in 100 people

[2]. Despite various theories concerning the increase, it is

mainly due to a change in diagnostic criteria. Until now,

the ICD-10 International Classication of Diseases and

Health Problems was in force in Poland, but in 2022 a new

ICD-11 classication system was introduced, which in-

cludes many important changes, such as, for example, res-

ignation from the division into childhood autism, atypical

autism and Asperger’s syndrome. Instead, an autism spec-

trum disorder is diagnosed, perceiving autism as a contin-

uum, taking into account dierent levels of severity [28].

This system has been functioning in the United States for

many years. It can be expected that in Poland it will be-

come popular in medical practice in two-three years.

Cognitive, social and communication abilities of people

with autism spectrum disorders are varied, and therefore

their education can take place in mainstream, integrated

or special needs school. Research shows that after com-

pleting education, people with autism who are within the

intellectual norm are able to achieve independence [29].

Numerous problems in the education system of autistic

people hinder this process. These include, among others,

the lack of a procedural curriculum, shortage of sta and

their insucient qualications [30]. Persons with autism

spectrum disorders are not provided with continuity of

support – the continuation of education at a later stage is

dicult due to the lack of integrated secondary schools

and the non-adaptation of those generally available to

students with autism. Another obstacle for children with

Fig. 3. Newcastle, Great Britain,

Thomas Bewick School

(designed by S. Humphreys,

source: [26])

Il. 3. Newcastle, Wielka

Brytania, szkoła Thomas Bewick

(proj. S. Humphreys,

źródło: [26])

74 Julia Pogoda, Joanna Majczyk

autism spectrum disorders and their parents is the short-

age of specialized facilities, dicult access to those al-

ready existing (locations in selected large cities, queues

for diagnosticians and therapists) and social barriers.

Education of children with autism requires adapting the

environment and working methods to their needs, there-

fore, for each child with an autism spectrum disorder the

highest educational subsidy is granted – 9.5 times great-

er than the amount of the educational standard, i.e. about

PLN 6,000 per month. Nevertheless, a signicant part of

the schools audited by the Supreme Audit Oce in 2019

did not fully take advantage of the possibilities to support

students with autism [2].

Spatial exclusion is a common problem of public schools,

however, high sensory sensitivity of children with autism

is often overlooked in the designs of specialized schools.

In recent years, schools and kindergartens focused on stu-

dents with autism spectrum disorders have been estab-

lished more frequently, but most of these activities simply

involve the adaptation of existing facilities or new build-

ings built based on the model of typical public facilities.

As part of these projects, it is usually not the space that is

comprehensively planned, but only the curriculum.

Based on the available guidelines and the analysis of the

needs of people with autism spectrum disorders, an origi-

nal classroom design for preschool children was developed

(Fig. 4). A division into a quiet zone was proposed, where

activities requiring concentration take place, and a play

zone, which is also an adaptive zone after entering the

classroom. The classroom is preceded by a transition zone

that is a buer between it and the noisier spaces. The zones

inside the room have not been separated by permanent,

vertical partitions, but their functions are legible, among

others, thanks to the change of the oor – a soft undercoat

was used in the play area, so that the change could be felt

with the use of dierent senses. Additionally, the lighting

Fig. 4. Diagram showing

the classroom adapted to children

with autism spectrum disorders:

a) layout, b) sectional view

(designed and drawn by J. Pogoda)

Il. 4. Schemat przedstawiający

klasę lekcyjną dostosowaną

do dzieci w spektrum autyzmu:

a) rzut, b) przekrój

(proj. i rys. J. Pogoda)

Educational spaces for students with autism spectrum disorders 75

is varied – in the play zone, the horizontal window intro-

duces a large amount of natural light and provides a view

of the natural landscape. In the education zone, the priority

was to reduce distracting external factors, therefore upper

lighting was planned. Both parts can constitute one space

or be separated by movable acoustic partitions. The equip-

ment of the classroom also allows for its exible use – the

student can at any time choose to work independently or

in a group, as well as rest in the second part of the room

or in a hideout on the covered terrace adjacent to the class-

rooms. The sensory garden located there provides the pos-

sibility of self-stimulation.

Emerging designs of specialized schools, which do not

only address autistic children, are an optimistic forecast.

An example of such a facility is a special school in the

Pawlikowski estate in Żory. The facility, designed by the

Toprojekt studio, complements the existing buildings on

the plot – L. Krzemieniecka Kindergarten No. 23 and Spe-

cial School No. 22. The main assumptions were to provide

specialized teaching spaces, a new gymnasium, and to im-

prove the conditions for caring for children with mild and

moderate intellectual disabilities (Fig. 5).

Due to the neurodiversity that occurs in children, the

facility has been divided into three zones: for users with

moderate mental disabilities, for students with mild dis-

abilities, and a buer between them composed of common

areas. In the middle part there are rooms that require less

concentration – a dining room or a gymnasium. The class-

rooms are separated by atriums, which provide lighting,

constant contact with nature and improve acoustic com-

fort. Green elements in the form of internal courtyards

and external terraces, divide – as stated in the description

of the design – classrooms, provide light to rooms and

have a therapeutic function, creating sensory gardens,

accessible directly from the rooms, separated individual-

ly for individual zones [31]. It should be noted, however,

Fig. 5. Żory, Pawlikowskiego

estate, special school design:

a) ground floor plan,

b) visualization of one of the

inner courtyards (designed by

Toprojekt studio, source: [31])

Il. 5. Żory, Osiedle

Pawlikowskiego, projekt szkoły

specjalnej: a) rzut przyziemia,

b) wizualizacja jednego

z wewnętrznych dziedzińców

(proj. Pracownia Toprojekt,

źródło: [31])

76 Julia Pogoda, Joanna Majczyk

that the presented examples are exceptions – in Poland,

there is no program of building kindergartens and schools

adapted to the specic needs of children with autism spec-

trum disorders.

Conclusion

The design concepts presented in the study are based,

among others, on the paradigms of universal design,

which takes into account various needs and limitations of

users, as well as how their functioning changes at sub-

sequent stages of life. The Universal Design Code con-

sists of seven principles. The rst one concerns equal

access – the facility is to be available to everyone by

default, without the need to use additional solutions for

individual groups. The exibility of solutions should pro-

vide users with freedom in the use of space, and at the

same time the use of the building must be simple and

intuitive. This will be facilitated by legible information

provided in various forms, which includes, among others,

clear communication and markings. Another rule – error

tolerance – reminds us that the designer should predict

possible errors and minimize their negative eects. The

facility planned according to the principles of universal

design requires little eort by the user and provides suf-

cient space for comfortable use by a person of any size

and varying degrees of mobility. Under the inuence of

the research, the set of guidelines presented was rened or

transformed in the designs for children with autism spec-

trum disorders. This shows that universal design turned

out to be insucient. Attempting to satisfy the needs of

all users generates many problematic situations, and the

elements facilitating the use of one group may make other

groups uncomfortable. Moreover, such conicts of inter-

est also exist within a single group – the development of

high-functioning students with autism spectrum disorders

could be limited by isolation from neurotypical peers, and

children with ASDs on the opposite end of the spectrum

would not be able to develop eectively in an integrated

school. Therefore, are we able to design universal schools,

or will it remain just a utopian desire? We are still at the

beginning of the road in terms of designing for autistic

people, and the answer to this question may come along

with the intensication of research and evaluation of the

impact of architecture on autistic users.

It seems, however, that today there are several elements

and activities worthy of being included in the universal

design code in the concepts of school buildings for chil-

dren with autism spectrum disorders. The most important

activities include:

– space sequencing (creating simple room layouts in

an order related to the building use schedule, as well as

similar in terms of sensory control),

– design of buer zones, sensory neutral between spac-

es with dierent functions and/or levels of sensory control,

– attention to acoustic conditions, the use of subdued

colours and diused light,

– designing “hideouts” – places to calm down.

The buildings of kindergartens and schools should not

imitate the neurotypical “reality”, they should consti-

tute safe and friendly space that responds to the needs of

autistic people, supports their therapy and development

through consciously applied design procedures.

Translated by

Junique Justin Nnorom

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Educational spaces for students with autism spectrum disorders 77

Abstract

Educational spaces for students with autism spectrum disorders

This study aims to present the relationship between the architectural surroundings and the needs of children with autism spectrum disorders in

the educational environment. Therefore, it began with identifying the special needs of children with ASDs (Autism Spectrum Disorder) and the ways

in which these needs are addressed in school designs carried out in the USA and Great Britain. The study also shows a few Polish attempts to create

autism-friendly schools. Finally, an attempt was made to extend the paradigms of “universal design” with activities necessary to increase the comfort

of using educational institutions by children with autism spectrum disorders.

Key words: education, school design, autism spectrum, inclusivity, universal design

Streszczenie

Przestrzenie edukacyjne dla uczniów w spektrum autyzmu

W niniejszym opracowaniu przedstawiono zależności między otoczeniem architektonicznym a potrzebami dzieci ze spektrum autyzmu w śro-

dowisku edukacyjnym. Rozpoczęto od wskazania specjalnych potrzeb dzieci z ASD (Autism Spectrum Disorder) i sposobów, w jaki odpowiada się

na te potrzeby w projektach szkół zrealizowanych w USA i w Wielkiej Brytanii. W artykule pokazano też nieliczne polskie próby tworzenia szkół

przyjaznych autystykom, a na końcu podjęto próbę rozszerzenia paradygmatów „projektowania uniwersalnego” o działania konieczne do zwiększe-

nia komfortu użytkowania placówek edukacyjnych przez dzieci ze spektrum autyzmu.

Słowa kluczowe: edukacja, projektowanie szkół, spektrum autyzmu, inkluzywność, projektowanie uniwersalne

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