Form-based codes versus urban revitalization of historical city centers. Opportunities and dangers

Magdalena Wiśniewska

doi:10.37190/arc220206

Abstract

The aim of the article is the presentation of new methods and tools applied in city planning and revitalization projects. It is also a result of the wide interests and recognition of contemporary city spaces condition and methods which can be used to successfully shape harmonious urban space and create desirable living conditions for residents that will go forward their everyday needs. The article draws attention to the challenges related with searching for new, effective tools and methods used in the urban planning in the face of contemporary transformations of historical downtown space, as well as in connection with the need to efficiently revitalize urban spaces in many Polish cities. It shows the complexity of activities undertaken on many levels, focusing on aspects of urban renewal and revitalization processes with the special context of cultural and historical heritage. It is also an attempt to recognize the assumptions of the SmartCode, a special type of form-based code proposed by the New Urbanism, and considers the possibility of the application of the method in local regulations – taking into account the cultural and spatial context of Polish cities. Author searches for an answer to the following question: Can form-based codes be an effective tool in the revitalization of urban, historical space? What is the potential of this tool – what opportunities it offers and what risks it entails? The reflection on these issues is based on the analysis of the written sources, literature on the subject and analysis of case studies of selected architectural and urban cases. The selected examples are presented in the aspect of application of the local building tradition over the years, and how it can refer to that category in the context of the SmartCode methodology. For this purpose, selected references were based on the explanations done by town planners and architects to apply the local building and historical tradition in, e.g., the post-war reconstruction of the city spaces, promotion of socialist realism, popularity of postmodernism, historicism, and retroversion. The analyses of this approach led us to look over the similar aspect of the SmartCode methodology. As a result, it is found that this approach [supported by a transect, charette workshops, and by relevant local legal regulations] is a coherent and comprehensive tool in urban planning, successfully applied in the American countries, both in newly designed city spaces and in the transformation of the existing ones. The important aspect of the undertaken research was the recognition whether it is possible to simply copy that methodology in Poland. After acknowledgment of the subject it should be noted that due to significant cultural differences (e.g., a centuries-old and complex history of urban planing) and a different tradition of building, it can be defined that there is number of threats and fears related to the attempt to apply them directly in the revitalization of the historical space of Polish cities. However, it should be indicated that following on the SmartCode methodology, it can be a valuable inspiration to look for appropriately modified local solutions and it can also be an interesting starting point for a discussion on the role of cultural heritage in contemporary transformations of urban space and the purposefulness of contemporary references to historical forms.

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Magdalena Wiśniewska*

Form-based codes versus urban revitalization of historical city centers.

Opportunities and dangers

Introduction

The inspiration for the consideration of the spatial form-

based codes was, on the one hand, a reection on the cur-

rent directions of revitalization activities and transforma-

tions of specic areas in Polish cities and available

design

tools, and on the other hand, willingness to lean on – re-

peated in the ongoing debate on urban development – ar

guments

regarding the need to develop new methods of

integrated planning that respond to the high dynamics of

multidimensional transformations [1]. Also contributing

to the topic was the widespread belief that […] the revital-

ization of Polish cities is a lagging process compared to

the practice of other countries [2, p. 10], as Piotr Lorens

points out, which provides an opportunity to learn from

the experience gained and to modify it, if necessary, for

adaptation in local solutions. Interest in the abovemen-

tioned issues also stems from general – national and Eu-

ropean – urban planning guidelines, formulated, among

others, in The Agenda 21 [3], The Habitat III Agenda [4],

The New Athens Charter of 2003 [5] or Krajowa polity-

ka miejska 2023 [National Urban Policy 2023] [6]. The

cited documents emphasize the need for multidimension-

al revitalization based on the assumptions of sustainable

development, and also draw attention to the need for ap-

* ORCID: 0000000152709263. Faculty of Civil Engineering

and Architecture, Lublin University of Technology, Poland, email:

m.wisniewska@pollub.pl

As Lorens points out: […] The revitalization of Polish cities is

a lagging process compared to the practice of other countries, especially

Western European or North American ones. As a result, the authors of

revitalization projects can benet from the methods and experience

already developed, although, as the rst experiences indicate, it is rather

necessary to build our own model of planning and implementation of

revitalization activities, specic to our economic and political realities,

on the basis of the knowledge developed in other urban centers [2, p. 10].

propriate action in historical city centers, pointing to their

crucial importance for the preservation of the European

cultural heritage. The analysis of opportunities and threats

arising from the use of the spatial formbased codes in ur-

ban revitalization, carried out in the course of the research,

also results from the citation of these issues in the publi-

cation by Michał Domińczak – Nowa urbanistyka. Meto-

dyka

i zasady projektowania według SmartCode [New Ur-

banism. Methodology and principles of design according to

the SmartCode] [7]. Reection on the assumptions of this

methodology and its universality and applicability also in

Polish local conditions is the main objective of this study.

The author draws attention to the challenges associated

with the search for eective tools and methods used in the

urban planning, designed for activities related to contempo-

rary transformations of historical urban areas. The author’s

considerations are based on the questions: Can the spatial

formbased codes be an eective tool in the revitalization

of urban space? Is there a potential for this solution – what

opportunities and what risks does it bring?

Challenges of revitalization

Cities and, above all, historically formed urban com-

plexes are currently undergoing extremely intensive trans 

formations. This process is particularly evident in the face

of the dynamic technological development, ongoing de-

mographic processes, widespread disintegration of urban

structures, and new circumstances related to changes

caused by the climate crisis or pandemic, among others.

Among other things, it is becoming a challenge to reorga-

nize the space and functioning of cities so that they pro-

vide comfort, safety and a high quality of life for residents.

In the eld of urban planning and architecture, the di-

rections of these multidimensional transformations in spa-

tial terms can be assigned to two main zones of activity:

DOI: 10.37190/arc220206

Published in open access. CC BY NC ND license

60 Magdalena Wiśniewska

1) in the existing urban structure, and 2) in previously

noninvested areas, often arising in the suburbs of urban

organisms (as a result of the “urban sprawl” and the so

called suburbanization). In terms of strategy and group of

program activities, the conservation and revitalization ac-

tivities undertaken in the existing urban complex occupy

a special place. The urban revitalization itself […] is be-

coming an increasingly important element in the process

of development and transformation of Polish cities, as Lo-

rens points out [2, p. 19]. By the historically and cultur-

ally dened context, however, many of the revitalization

activities require very careful identication of problematic

issues and addressing appropriate organizational and spa-

tial solutions. As numerous examples show, only coordi-

nated and unitdirected solutions can successfully revitalize

a degraded space by […] redening the attractiveness of

a place through functional, socio-economic and aesthetic

adjustments [8, p. 27].

The revitalization, in spatial terms, should be under-

stood as the restoration of urban values, including (often

lost in a degraded area) signicance in the city structure,

providing the basis for revitalization on many levels of

activity, including social and economic. Izabela Mirono-

wicz points out that […] revitalization does not necessar-

ily mean the restoration of previous development, but only

the value restoration to a specic place in the entire func-

tional and spatial structure of the city. Thus, the transfor-

mation of a certain urban structure aects the transfor-

mation of the entire functional and spatial structure of the

city [9, p. 103].

Planning and design tools

In view of the challenges indicated above, it is reason-

able to search for and identify eective design and plan-

ning tools used in the revitalization activities. They could

contribute to improving the quality of the space of Polish

cities, especially their historical downtowns

. These is-

sues are widely taken up in the works on the Polish ground

by, among others, Sławomir Gzell [10], Piotr Lorens [11],

and Zbigniew Zuziak [12]. As a result, it becomes nec-

essary, also in the eld of urban planning, to recognize

emerging innovative models of action, represented by the

parametric urban design

, space syntax

, and many oth-

ers. Also included in this group are the formbased codes

[14], popularized since the 1980s

, and represented by the

SmartCode [15], promoted, among others, by the founders

of the New Urbanism. The subject of these considerations

is an attempt to analyze the possibility of their applica-

tion on the Polish ground, especially in the revitalization

Among other things, in addition to the municipal revitalization

program, the local revitalization program, and in the face of widespread

urban planning regulations in local development plans.

Parametric urban design using computer tools (CAD, GIS,

databases, etc.).

The theory of space syntax proposed in 1984 by Bill Hillier and

Julienne Hanson. Cf. [13].

The idea of creating a code of spatial forms is associated with

the development in 1981 of an urban layout project in the spirit of New

Urbanism – Seaside in Florida.

of downtown complexes. These considerations will be

supplemented by a reection on the application of spatial

formbased codes in the renewal of historical urban space.

The New Urbanism

To outline the issue at hand in a bit more detail, it is rst

necessary to recognize the circumstances that contributed

to the establishment of the New Urbanism methodology,

as the context of its emergence is of great importance.

To do this, it is necessary to go back to the 1970s, when

a movement called the New Urbanism was beginning to

take shape in the United States, riding the wave of post-

modernism

and modern historicism

. It was associated,

as the name suggests, with a new way of thinking about the

city, caused by negating the principles of the modernistic

space design. It manifested itself in a declared opposition

to uncontrolled suburban sprawl and the common mod-

of the city spatial structure – based on monofunctional

zones. The common model of American cities emerging at

the time consisted of a service and business center (the so

called downtown, Central Business District – CBD), little

supplemented by intensive residential and mixeduse build-

ings, with suburbs with extensive singlefamily housing

stretching to the horizon, without any identifying elements.

And it was the desire to nd solutions to reduce and, in

a sense, order this spatial chaos and extensive, amorphous

urban structures that lay at the genesis of the New Urbanism.

To this end, the movement’s creators, starting from the

inspiration of the Ebenezer Howard’s garden city model

and adding further modications, proposed a return to the

planning and architectural tradition of the late 19

and ear-

ly 20

centuries – both in the functional and spatial lay-

ers of city planning, i.e., the quarter development with an

accompanying model for organizing the life of the local

community. Eventually, a model referred to as the neotra-

ditional planning was created, dened on two levels: 1) the

urban planning and 2) architectural planning. The rst one

refers directly to the forms of traditional urban layouts, i.e.,

primarily quarter buildings. The second one refers to the

formal layer of the development itself – through references

to the local building patterns. The combination of these ele-

ments was one of the solutions to increase the eectiveness

of multidimensional actions taken in the urban space – both

in the creation of new urban layouts and the revitalization

of existing ones. All the principles and guidelines that guid-

ed the founders of the New Urbanism were cataloged in

Postmodernism – in its program cutting o from modernist con

cepts of a space organizing, emphasizing in architectural forms the need

to freely juxtapose various cultural themes and simplied, redened

contemporary historical forms, so as to compile them and give them new

meaning. Cf. [16].

Modern historicism, associated with the negation of the prin -

ciples of modernism, it postulates the search for local values in the

way of creating spaces associated with a given place. A distinguishing

feature is the narrative nature of the structure, evident in the numerous

references to traditional forms, which are specic to a given city, region,

community, among others. In architectural creation, it manifests itself in

the continuation of themes inherent in the existing natural and cultural

context of the place, such as the Stągiewna Street in Gdańsk.

Form-based codes versus urban revitalization of historical city centers. Opportunities and dangers 61

lates to the use of the relationship between architecture and

urbanism. It translated into a direct relationship between

building façades and the urban space (Fig. 1). This was im-

plemented, among other things, not only by dening in de-

tail the location of the building on the plot, but also through

precise guidelines for the solution of the front façade – in

the spatial layer – such as the composition of the porch, the

choice of a specic color scheme, the way of arranging the

front space within the plot, or the proportions of the indi-

vidual elements of the building body: the height of the in-

dividual oors, the attic, the form of the roof, etc. (Fig. 2).

This nonstandard model, which is a juxtaposition of

architectural and urban solutions

, was intended by its

creators to contribute to more eective construction of

The comprehensiveness of the method was built up, com ple

menting it with, among other things, a transect and the charette workshop.

the 27 points of the New Urbanism Charter [17]. It denes

a list of urban actions to be considered in relation to the var-

ious elements of action, grouped in relation to the main ur-

ban and architectural issues: the scale of the region (metrop-

olis, large and small city), district, quarter, street or, nally,

individual buildings. The overriding goal of such a multi-

faceted action was to seek optimal forms of organization

of urban layouts: settlements and neighborhoods – both in

the spatial, functional, communication, and social layers.

SmartCode

The next step to realize the aforementioned assumptions

was the development of integrated design, planning and

architectural methods, which were then solidied in the

form of the spatial form-based code model – the Smart-

Code [14], [18]. It was to be understood as an innovative,

creative method of spatial and urban planning, which re-

Fig. 1. Graphic diagram showing

the assumptions of the SmartCode

defined for the project of

revitalization of the city of

Bellevue, Kentucky, USA,

in terms of the interface of

architecture and urbanism of

the so-called frontages

(elaborated by M. Wiśniewska

based on the CNU materials [19])

Il. 1. Schemat graficzny pokazujący

założenia SmartCode’u

zdefiniowanego dla projektu

rewitalizacji miasta Bellevue

w stanie Kentucky, USA,

w zakresie styku architektury

i urbanistyki tzw. krawędzi

(oprac. M. Wiśniewska

na podstawie materiałów CNU [19])

62 Magdalena Wiśniewska

the desired spatial structure, […] The “New urbanists”

recommend that when constructing such architectural

codes, local history and architectural identity should be

studied, and typical, valuable elements of past develop-

ments should be identied. This is because it is assumed

that buildings in the New Urbanism settlements must be

of the same style (preferably with the historical origin),

justifying this with “the need to [ensure] functional and

visual coherence” which is a guarantee of “protecting the

quality of a public space” [21, p. 188].

Proposing such a dierent approach was to be a kind of

remedy for the common amorphous structure of American

cities. The rst realizations, including those in Seaside or

Celebration, Florida, were well received by the public,

and over time contributed to the spread of this method

of shaping the suburban structures of many other Amer-

ican cities (cf. [22]). Among the several hundred layouts

implemented using the SmartCode and supported by an-

other project tool transect (Fig. 3), those within the Unit-

ed States predominate, and outside the US. […] it mainly

covers English-speaking countries or those remaining in

an English-speaking cultural circle [22, p. 89]. As Hanzl

pointed out: […] this conrms the thesis [that – M.W.

note] it is a distinctly American movement, responding to

the problems there [22, p. 89]. Nevertheless, over time,

the very idea and models proposed by the New Urbanists

crossed geographical boundaries and found adherents also

in Europe, e.g. in the projects of Leon Krier, Robin Man-

ager and Marcus Axelsson, Rob Krier and Christoph Kohl,

François Spoerry, and many others

. It should be pointed

out that also in Poland there was the rst realization taking

into account the principles of the New Urbanism, i.e. the

establishment of the Siewierz Jeziorna eco-town

The New Urbanisminspired layouts have been realized, among

others, in the Poundbury development complex in southern England, the

Nikolaiviertel in Berlin, the KarowNord and Potsdam Kirchsteigfeld in

Germany, CergyPontoise [Port Cergy] in France, or Puerto de Mogan

in Gran Canaria.

Siewierz Jeziorna ecotown – designed by a team under the

direction of Maciej M. Mycielski. Due to the fact that it concerns

Spatial form-based codes and revitalization

The spatial codes dominate in two main types of urban

areas. The rst is the suburbs area, the socalled suburbia

– planning in these areas lies at the genesis of the entire

movement and it is directly related to countering suburban

sprawl. The second type of areas came within the scope

of interest of the New Urbanists a little later, and is re-

lated to the revitalization and development of inner-city

areas. The issue of revitalization and the idea of imple-

menting the New Urbanism principles resounded in this

regard directly at the 7

Congress of the New Urbanism

in Milwaukee in 1999 [24]. At that time, two types of ac-

tivities in the existing urban structure were distinguished:

1) projects that lead to the revitalization of downtown ar-

eas nanced by private funds, 2) highly subsidized urban

projects supported by government programs [24].

Since the New Urbanism also makes use of the revi-

talization term, it should be noted that the term itself is

interpreted dierently: […] not as the transformation of

an existing structure, but as the creation of new structures

that are “better” in concept [21, p. 183]. The revitaliza-

tion of the suburbs

, therefore, was and is supposed – ac

cording to the representatives of the movement – to take

place through an integrated approach to the neotraditional

urban design. As Hanzl points out, […] most projects are

the practical implementation of the assumptions of intro-

ducing into the existing amorphous development a de-

ned structure of urban character – a grid of streets and

squares – enclosed by compact buildings [22, p. 88]. The

application of the New Urbanism principles to the revi-

talization of downtown spaces in practice includes a wide

range of activities: from the modernization of public

a premise created from scratch, on the socalled raw root (the rst stage

of the premise was realized), in this paper it was only mentioned in the

context of the application of the movement methodology itself. Cf. [23].

The 7

edition of the annual New Urbanism Congress, its theme

was the richness of cities [24].

In this context, the example of urban revitalization of Portland,

Oregon, USA, is often cited.

Fig. 2. The example of the SmartCode guidelines formulated within the framework of the regulatory plan of the West Main Street in Peoria:

a) in terms of the height of the buildings on the plot and b) in terms of the building location on the plot (Peoria Land Development, USA)

(elaborated by M. Wiśniewska based on materials CNU [20])

Il. 2. Przykład wytycznych SmartCode’u sformułowanych w ramach planu regulacyjnego ul. West Main w Peorii:

a) w zakresie wysokości budynków i b) ich usytuowania na działce (Peoria Land Development, USA)

(oprac. M. Wiśniewska na podstawie materiałów CNU [20])

Form-based codes versus urban revitalization of historical city centers. Opportunities and dangers 63

urban areas, such as the Leon Krier’s plan for the Berlin

suburb of Tegel district, or projects by Duany Plater-Zy-

berk & Company [22, p. 88].

The SmartCode and references to local traditions

in Polish architecture and urban planning

In the context of the universalism declared by the cre-

ators of the New Urbanism, and the potential of the Smart-

Code model to be applied to existing spatial structures re-

gardless of their location

, it is reasonable to recognize

the possibility of its implementation in the urban revital-

ization of historic downtowns of Polish cities, taking into

account the neotraditional planning.

Paradoxically, turning to the traditional form of layouts

based on the idea of historical references is not a new phe-

nomenon in the land of Poland, and over the epochs it has

recurred many times in the domestic building tradition.

Therefore, reaching back to examples from history over

the past few decades, it is possible to make a theoretical

recognition in an indirect way – how such actions were

and are evaluated from a temporal perspective, and, as

a result, what is the SmartCode potential for contempo-

rary application.

Several main circumstances can be distinguished for

the emergence of the concept of reference to local build-

ing traditions and historical patterns in the space of Polish

cities: 1) through the search for solutions in the recon-

struction of cities after the destruction of war, where it

appeared as one of the possible scenarios of action (popu-

larized, among others, by Zachwatowicz as an attempt to

restore cultural values), 2) as a concept of socialist real-

ism promoted by the authorities of the time (evident in the

This approach was inspired by the mentioned Domińczak’s

publication [7].

housing, projects for the renewal of development areas

inhabited by ethnic minorities or

TODtype

projects at

various scales [26]. The spatial design guidelines were

compiled in a study titled Principles for “Inner-City”

Neighborhood Design [27], [28] which was the result of

a collaboration between representatives of the New Ur-

banism, CNU (Congress for the New Urbanism) and the

U.S. Housing Urban Department (HUD), and it was pub-

lished in 2001 [27], [28]. As a result, in addition to the

predominant use of the New Urbanism and SmartCode

methodologies in suburban areas, the concept has been

applied to a lesser extent in existing structures – in the

form of urban programs and additions, the socalled in-

lls. However, the number of such implementations, in-

cluding those cataloged in the CNU project database [29],

even in the American reality is negligible

. This group

of projects includes, among others, the Crawford Square

in Pittsburgh, City Place in West Palm Beach, Highlands

Garden Village in Denver, and Park Du Valle in Louis-

ville. Among the projects carried out in the spirit of New

Urbanism, there are also examples […] of the integration

of new centers for the identication of amorphous sub-

The representatives of New Urbanism, apart from the code of

spatial forms, often use the transect as a complement (Fig. 3). They took

this concept from the natural sciences, where it is used to describe the form

of development of ecosystems. In urban planning, the transect describes

a model of spatial organization – from green areas delineating the layout

boundaries, through the form of rural buildings to the city center, it is

divided into six zones: core (T6), center (T5), city (T4), suburban (T3),

rural (T2) and natural (T1). Duany PlaterZyberk & Company describes

this concept as follows: Transect organizes the elements of urban plan-

ning into a useful order, classifying them from village to city. Each urban

element nds a specic place on this continuum [24].

Transit Oriented Development (TOD) – interpreted as a planning

model oriented to the optimal use of public transport accessibility.

On the CNU website, which maintains a database of projects

completed according to the New Urbanism principles, there are only

7 projects indicated in the eld of revitalization.

Fig. 3. An example of a diagram of the socalled transect

, which representatives of the New Urbanism

use as one of the tools to supplement the SmartCode

(elaborated by M. Wiśniewska based on materials by Duany PlaterZyberk & Company and The Center for Applied Transect Studies [CATS],

source: [25])

Il. 3. Przykład schematu tzw. transektu, który przedstawiciele Nowego Urbanizmu

wykorzystują jako jedno z narzędzi uzupełniających kodu form przestrzennych

(oprac. M. Wiśniewska na podstawie materiałów Duany PlaterZyberk & Company oraz The Center for Applied Transect Studies [CATS],

źródło: [25])

64 Magdalena Wiśniewska

construction of Nowa Huta, the Marszałkowska Housing

District, or the Palace of Culture and Science in Warsaw)

(Fig. 4) and 3) through the spread of the idea of postmod-

ernism in the 1970s and 1980s and the reconstruction of

cities using historical styles.

The rationale behind reaching for historical styles,

mainly in the rst period of postwar reconstruction, was

the emotional need to recreate the atmosphere of destroyed

cities. For this reason, the prevailing attitude at this stage

was that of prescribing proper reconstruction

and resto-

ration of historical centers. Over time, however, this ap-

proach was questioned, primarily because of the “artici-

ality” and the creation of an image that was incompatible

A special case of reconstruction understood in this way is

reconstruction understood as the rebuilding of a nonexistent object in

its original spatial form.

Fig. 4. Marszałkowska Housing District (MDM)

– an example of a socialist realism housing complex erected in 1950–1952, by J. Sigalin, S. Jankowski, J. Knothe and others:

a) view of the space of Constitution Square and adjacent buildings; in the formal and spatial layer, references to historical details are used,

b) view of the Constitution Square and characteristic spatial dominants in the form of scaled candelabras (photo by M. Wiśniewska)

Il. 4. Marszałkowska Dzielnica Mieszkaniowa (MDM)

– przykład socrealistycznego zespołu zabudowy wzniesiony w latach 1950–1952, autorstwa m.in. J. Sigalina, S. Jankowskiego, J. Knothe:

a) widok na przestrzeń Placu Konstytucji i zabudowania przyległe, w warstwie formalnej i przestrzennej wykorzystujące nawiązania

do historycznego detalu, b) Plac Konstytucji, widok na przestrzeń placu i charakterystyczne dominanty przestrzenne w postaci przeskalowanych

kandelabrów (fot. M. Wiśniewska)

Fig. 5. The residential development at the National Education Commission Avenue 98 in Warsaw – an example of the realization

of the postmodernism assumptions, characterized by a return to the quarter development with individualized, loosely interpreted, historical detail:

a) view of the inner courtyard with interestingly arranged green zones and elements of small architecture, b) view of the development from the

Artystów Street showing the gradation of the height of the development and illustrating the formal and spatial solutions used

(photo by M. Wiśniewska)

Il. 5. Zabudowa mieszkaniowa przy al. Komisji Edukacji Narodowej 98 w Warszawie – przykład realizacji założeń postmodernizmu, cechujący

się powrotem do zabudowy kwartałowej ze zindywidualizowanym, luźno interpretowanym, historycznym detalem: a) widok na przestrzeń

wewnętrznego dziedzińca z ciekawie zaaranżowanymi strefami zieleni i elementami małej architektury, b) widok na zabudowę od strony

ul. Artystów pokazujący gradację wysokości zabudowy oraz ilustrujący zastosowane rozwiązania formalne i przestrzenne (fot. M. Wiśniewska)

Form-based codes versus urban revitalization of historical city centers. Opportunities and dangers 65

with the historical original character of the old town

The result of these treatments was the creation of a kind

of “caricature” and […] variations on the historical form

and old solutions from dierent eras and styles, adapted

to the requirements of modernity

and the emergence of

thematized building complexes. Drawing on such a rich

and centuriesold tradition, it was and is not […] possi-

ble to make a precise assessment or valuation of which of

these eras is the most valuable [21, p. 199].

Another impulse to reach for traditional architectural

and urban planning forms was the fascination with the post-

modernism assumptions, which in Poland fell in the 1980s,

applied both in new realizations and in the reconstruction of

cities. Examples of new realizations in this context include

the Zielone Wzgórza development complex near Murow-

ana Goślina, or multifamily developments solved in the

form of closed quarters with internal courtyards in the

National Education Commission Avenue in the Ursy nów

Such an attitude was argued by the diculty of obtaining com 

prehensive inventories that would allow faithful restoration and re con

struction of destroyed objects and their fragments.

Cf. [21, p. 195] [note – M.W.].

housing development in Warsaw (Fig. 5a, b). In Polish re-

alities, these activities are concentrated on the urban level,

without interfering in the architectural level as much as the

representatives of the New Urbanism propose. The solu-

tions used in Poland are much more simplied in relation

to the SmartCode and limited to a repetitive architectural

form, looking for references in a traditional, freely inter-

preted detail, which is distant from its historical prototype.

In this activity, at the level of reconstruction of histori-

cal downtowns, this approach coincided with a reection

related to the rejection of reconstruction or rebuilding in

the spirit of modernism, and the search for new solutions

in the name of the genius loci unique building process and

the culture of a place in reference to local traditions. The

agship example cited in this context was the reconstruc-

tion of Elbląg’s Old Town (Fig. 6). The model of recon-

struction applied there became popular under the name of

retroversion

. It consisted in exposing the value of the

The author of the concept of retroversion was Maria Lubocka

Homann. Examples of the use of retroversion in Poland also include

the Old Town in Głogów, Kołobrzeg and Granary Island in Gdańsk.

Fig. 6. Elbląg’s Old Town, an example of a retroversion implemented according to the general conservation and planning concept

under the direction of M. LubockaHoffman (photo: courtesy UM Elbląg)

Il. 6. Elbląska starówka, przykład retrowersji realizowanej według ogólnej koncepcji konserwatorskoplanistycznej

pod kierunkiem M. LubockiejHoffman (fot. dzięki uprzejmości UM w Elblągu)

66 Magdalena Wiśniewska

historical spatial layout, based on the restoration of the

original urban structure of Elblag’s Old Town – the for-

mer parcel division or height of buildings, but in a post-

modern spirit – with a free treatment of details, colors and

using a large amount of ornamentation loosely referring

to historical styles. As the author of the concept pointed

out, […] dening the method of retroversion, it can be said

that it is a type of conservationist creation that respects

historical conditions, but does not reproduce the former

development and aims that the newly developed histori-

cal area should recreate the former urban landscape and

serve modern needs in accordance with the conservation

principles [30, p. 62]. The development of this unique

solution for revitalization and preservation activities was

preceded by comprehensive scientic research, including

archaeological research on an unprecedented scale at the

time. And although the arguments indicated in favor of

adopting such a model of action seem valid, due to the fact

that the result is far from the initial assumptions, it is also

often criticized [21]. Opponents of such an action empha-

size that the concept was implemented on the basis of […]

a conservation theory that was supercial and ambiguous

in interpretation, ostensibly referring to the history of the

place [31, p. 103] and considerable freedom in the design

of buildings using postmodern principles of shaping the

development form. The result was a chaotic, ahistorical,

mainly stenciled and homogeneous architecture, which not

only failed to restore the historical silhouette of the Old

Town, but introduced a new, in a sense articial and alien

quality (cf. [31]). Because of the above, the retroversy and

related approach to rebuilding the urban structure, accord-

ing to the historical layout of buildings and according to

postmodern codes, is treated by some as the socalled urban

kitsch, although it is often well received by the public. This

dissonance is due to the fact that retroversion is a meth-

od that, on the one hand, reaches for contemporary means

of expression – by creating a new value, and on the other

hand, it freely draws references to a historical detail, which,

however, has no actual historical value (cf. [32]). Retro-

version thanks to this is well received by users, because it

uses familiar, culturally close formal elements that evoke

positive associations. A similar approach and the desirabil-

ity of searching for references in building forms to local

traditions and place identity is also contained in the idea

of critical regionalism

. Its creators justify this attitude

with the need to create individualized, modern architecture

that takes into account regional and cultural references. In

this way, at the level of architectural and urban planning

solutions, in the formal layer, it is possible to build unique

spatial relationships between the past and the present.

Conclusions

The issues raised in these considerations are related to

the search for an answer to the question of whether reach-

A concept related to the modern interpretation of regional ar chi

tecture and “new regionalism”, appeared in the 1950s, it was re constructed

in a multifaceted way by Lewis Mumford, and dened by Alexander Tzonis

and Liane Lefaivre, then propagated by Kenneth Frampton [33].

ing for a design tool in the form of spatial codes, both in

the urban and architectural layers, can be treated as uni-

versal and adaptable also in Polish conditions, especial-

ly in view of the challenges associated with the dynamic

transformation of historical structures.

Analyzing the assumptions that guided the originators

of the New Urbanism and the SmartCode methodology,

it can be concluded that they form a comprehensive and

consistent method. This was achieved by implementing

the principles formulated in the New Urbanism Charter

and developing tools in the form of SmartCode, transect

or charette workshops, among others, in projects of Amer-

ican layouts. As a result of the compilation of these ele-

ments and thanks to the application of appropriate legal

solutions in the eld of architectural and urban planning

regulations, a model more complete than the one prevail-

ing in the Polish planning documents was created.

First of all, the creators of this movement in their con-

cepts refer to a catalog of architectural activities and tools

related to, among other things, the form of shaping space

at the interface of the scale of the city and the scale of

architecture (forms of façades, porches, courtyards at the

front of the plot), much more precisely dening them in

the planning system

. The foundations of such an ap-

proach are rooted in the American legislation, and there-

fore not only at the level of design methodology, historical

tradition, but also relevant legal regulations, signicantly

dierent in this regard from European and Polish realities.

Moreover, reaching for architectural references, refer-

ring to traditional and historical patterns, embedded in the

SmartCode model is not a new concept. It has recurred in

various forms several times in the history of urban plan-

ning and architecture, as it is evidenced by the examples

presented above (including postwar reconstruction, so-

cialist realism, postmodernism, historicism, retroversion

or various forms of architectural regionalisms). Analyzing

this aspect of the code of spatial forms, today its applica-

tion seems risky. At the level of implementation, it means,

among other things, focusing on the form of the façade

using a historical creation.

The cited examples showed that this approach often

led to […] pastiche and “façadism” falsifying spatial en-

sembles, as Jan Zachwatowicz already pointed out in the

1960s [21, p. 200]. This thought is now continued by,

among others, Lorens and MartyniukPęczek, who also

point out the high risk of creating thematized spaces in this

way, […] without the [natural] eect of growing structure,

with a false history and tradition of the place [21, p. 190].

At the same time, they emphasize that it is extremely dif-

cult to draw a subtle line between thematic creation and

historical reference that […] designers very often cross

[21, p. 201], which, in the author’s opinion, only conrms

the fears of such an application of this model in practice in

Polish conditions, especially in downtown buildings with

a strong historical tradition

Such actions are possible also thanks to a dierent legal system,

which enables many of them.

Cf. Lorens and MartyniukPęczek: […] Thus, we are witnessing

the birth of a new and extremely vital trend in the reconstruction of

Form-based codes versus urban revitalization of historical city centers. Opportunities and dangers 67

Another argument promoting the model of activities

proposed by representatives of the New Urbanism is also

its inclusion in the concept of sustainable development.

Nevertheless, in Polish and European conditions, it seems

that these activities are somewhat dierently understood.

In Europe, they focus on maximizing the use of space

within the city limits and counteracting chaotic and un-

controlled suburbanization, while in the US they focus

on a chaotic structurization and extensive singlefamily

housing. The most important challenge for shaping urban

areas in Poland is sustainable urban development in the

form of a balance between activities in the existing struc-

ture and controlled development of suburban areas. These

measures are implemented by studies, urban planning

projects and local development plans, i.e., the viable tools

for shaping urban space in terms of urban composition,

which, however, should be constantly supplemented by

urban policy solutions.

In view of the above, it seems that perhaps instead of

directly copying this model, it would be more appropriate

to treat the methodology proposed by the New Urbanism

and SmartCode as an inspiration to seek new solutions,

e.g., by improving imperfect indigenous solutions and be-

ing more detailed in the shaping of common spaces, trans-

portation centers or pedestrian and road communication,

as well as seeking administrative ways and tools to carry

out more integrated activities. Such considerations should

be supported in each case by a broad discussion of the

role of cultural heritage in contemporary transformations

of urban space or the search for contemporary references

to the tradition of a place.

historical cities. These tendencies – variously named and described

– lead us towards the thematization idea. The basic question, however, is

to nd the boundary between thematic kitsch and conscious restoration

of the space value. This boundary is extremely delicate, and designers

very often cross it [21, p. 201].

The thesis on the applicability of the SmartCode in Pol-

ish conditions and revitalization of downtown complexes

seems doubtful in the author’s opinion, as many ambigu-

ities arise. In light of these, rst of all, it is necessary to

nd an answer to the question of whether it is possible to

create synthesized spatial codes in urban European lay-

outs shaped over successive eras and marked by an ex-

tremely complex, centuriesold and very diverse cultural

tradition. There are also reasonable doubts about how the

hierarchy of individual historical elements will be evalu-

ated and who will ultimately decide on the architectural

form and aesthetic quality of the resulting layouts – con-

cerning not individual buildings, but entire fragments of

cities: neighborhoods and districts. This raises further

questions: whether, nally, the direction of historical ref-

erences proposed in the only example of the implemen-

tation of the New Urbanism idea in Poland, in the new

establishment of the urban complex, i.e., in the Siewierz

Jeziorna housing district (cf. [34]), is appropriate and

whether, at the level of the architectural solutions applied,

looking for the socalled local forms, the intended goal

was achieved. Despite the many valuable solutions in the

urban layer, is the use of architectural solutions that give

the impression of being overscaled and distorted in the

sphere of proportions and, however, somewhat accidental

in our cultural context, the direction in which native urban

planning should follow?

Of course, attempts to answer the above questions en-

courage indepth reection and interdisciplinary discus-

sion. Conclusions formulated in this area should also be

supported by appropriate considerations of the role of cul-

tural heritage in contemporary transformations of urban

space and the desirability of contemporary references to

historical forms.

Translated by

Maciej Szeląg

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68 Magdalena Wiśniewska

Abstract

Form-based codes versus urban revitalization of historical city centers. Opportunities and dangers

The aim of the article is the presentation of new methods and tools applied in city planning and revitalization projects. It is also a result of the

wide interests and recognition of contemporary city spaces condition and methods which can be used to successfully shape harmonious urban space

and create desirable living conditions for residents that will go forward their everyday needs.

The article draws attention to the challenges related with searching for new, eective tools and methods used in the urban planning in the face

of contemporary transformations of historical downtown space, as well as in connection with the need to eciently revitalize urban spaces in many

Polish cities. It shows the complexity of activities undertaken on many levels, focusing on aspects of urban renewal and revitalization processes with

the special context of cultural and historical heritage. It is also an attempt to recognize the assumptions of the SmartCode, a special type of formbased

code proposed by the New Urbanism, and considers the possibility of the application of the method in local regulations – taking into account the

cultural and spatial context of Polish cities. Author searches for an answer to the following question: Can formbased codes be an eective tool in the

revitalization of urban, historical space? What is the potential of this tool – what opportunities it oers and what risks it entails?

The reection on these issues is based on the analysis of the written sources, literature on the subject and analysis of case studies of selected

architectural and urban cases. The selected examples are presented in the aspect of application of the local building tradition over the years, and how

it can refer to that category in the context of the SmartCode methodology.

For this purpose, selected references were based on the explanations done by town planners and architects to apply the local building and histor-

ical tradition in, e.g., the postwar reconstruction of the city spaces, promotion of socialist realism, popularity of postmodernism, historicism, and

retroversion. The analyses of this approach led us to look over the similar aspect of the SmartCode methodology. As a result, it is found that this ap-

proach [supported by a transect, charette workshops, and by relevant local legal regulations] is a coherent and comprehensive tool in urban planning,

successfully applied in the American countries, both in newly designed city spaces and in the transformation of the existing ones.

The important aspect of the undertaken research was the recognition whether it is possible to simply copy that methodology in Poland. After

acknowledgment of the subject it should be noted that due to signicant cultural dierences (e.g., a centuriesold and complex history of urban

planing) and a dierent tradition of building, it can be dened that there is number of threats and fears related to the attempt to apply them directly

in the revitalization of the historical space of Polish cities. However, it should be indicated that following on the SmartCode methodology, it can be

a valuable inspiration to look for appropriately modied local solutions and it can also be an interesting starting point for a discussion on the role of

cultural heritage in contemporary transformations of urban space and the purposefulness of contemporary references to historical forms.

Key words: urban revitalization, SmartCode, planning tools, formbased codes, retroversion

Streszczenie

Kody form przestrzennych a rewitalizacja urbanistyczna śródmieść miast historycznych. Szanse i zagrożenia

Niniejszy artykuł powstał w wyniku zainteresowania możliwościami i aktualnymi uwarunkowaniami rewitalizacji, które mogą prowadzić do

kształtowania harmonijnej przestrzeni miejskiej, stwarzającej dla mieszkańców pożądane warunki do życia i realizacji ich codziennych potrzeb.

Autorka zwraca w nim uwagę na wyzwania związane z poszukiwaniem nowych, skutecznych narzędzi i metod stosowanych w urbanistyce do trans-

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Form-based codes versus urban revitalization of historical city centers. Opportunities and dangers 69

formacji historycznej przestrzeni śródmiejskiej. Wskazuje aktualność i złożoność działań podejmowanych na wielu poziomach, koncentrując się na

rewitalizacji urbanistycznej. Artykuł jest także próbą rozpoznania założeń SmartCode’u – kodu form przestrzennych – i rozważaniem możliwości

jego zastosowania w warunkach lokalnych przy uwzględnieniu kontekstu kulturowego i przestrzennego miast w Polsce. Celem autorki jest znalezie-

nie odpowiedzi na pytanie o to, czy kody form przestrzennych mogą być skutecznym narzędziem w rewitalizacji przestrzeni miejskiej.

Reeksja nad powyższymi zagadnieniami została oparta na analizie źródeł literaturowych i analizie studiów przypadku wybranych założeń ar-

chitektonicznych i urbanistycznych na przestrzeni kolejnych epok i kierunków, w zestawieniu z realizacją postulatów nawiązań do lokalnej tradycji

budowania w metodologii SmartCode’u. W tym celu odwołano się do przesłanek podnoszonych przez urbanistów i architektów, a przyświecających

powojennej odbudowie założeń miejskich, propagowaniu socrealizmu czy upowszechnianiu postmodernizmu, historyzmu, retrowersji. Doprowa-

dziło to do ukazania metodologii SmartCode’u (uzupełnionej przez transekt oraz warsztaty charette) jako spójnego i kompleksowego narzędzia

w urbanistyce. W artykule podniesiono, że jest ono stosowane z powodzeniem w realiach amerykańskich, zarówno w założeniach nowo projektowa-

nych, jak i w transformacji już istniejących. Ze względu na znaczne różnice kulturowe i odmienną tradycję budowania wskazano zagrożenia i obawy

związane z próbą ich bezpośredniego przełożenia i zastosowania w rewitalizacji przestrzeni polskich miast – cechującej się wielowiekową i złożoną

historią. Podkreślono jednak, że metodologia SmartCode’u może być cenną inspiracją do szukania odpowiednio zmodykowanych rozwiązań lo-

kalnych i punktem wyjścia dyskusji na temat roli dziedzictwa kulturowego we współczesnych przeobrażeniach przestrzeni miejskiej i celowości

współczesnych nawiązań do form historycznych.

Słowa kluczowe: rewitalizacja urbanistyczna, SmartCode, narzędzia planistyczne, kody form przestrzennych, retrowersja