Graphic depictions of form and space in architecture: a visual perception outlook

2021

3(67)

DOI: 10.37190/arc210310

Magdalena Wąsowicz*

Graphic depictions of form and space in architecture:

a visual perception outlook

Introduction

Similarly to images, graphics and gures in visual

arts as well as graphic representations in architecture

are subject to the multidimensional interpretation of im-

age. The interpretation of graphic representations is con-

nected with the perceptive aspect of the recipient, which

is explained by theories of classical psychology. One of

such theories is Gestalt psychology

. In accordance with

the assumptions of Gestalt psychology, impressions, de-

ned as the simplest psychological process, being the

reection of one feature of an object, regardless of the

other features of the object constitute the results of the

analysis of observations. The recipient responds to stim-

uli by means of senses and is “equipped” with the abil-

ity of ordering stimuli into structures or Gestalten

. Ac-

cording to the principle formulated by the school of

staltpsychologie, the sense of vision tends to organise

visible shapes into two opposite groups, i.e., gures

and

* ORCID: 0000-0001-6831-2746. Faculty of Civil Engineering

and Architecture, Opole University of Technology, e-mail: m.wasowicz

@po.edu.pl

Gestaltpsychologie is the school of psychology created in the

1910s in Germany. Its primary representatives were Max Wertheimer,

Kurt Koka, Wolfgang Kohler and, through philosophical relationships,

Kurt Lewin. In architecture, proponents of Gestalt psychology included

such researchers as Juliusz Żórawski, Sven Hesselgren, Rudolf Arnheim

and Christian Norberg-Schulz [1, pp. 370, 371].

Gestalt is a word for gures, shapes or forms in German. The

word refers to a whole, system, or conguration. The key term of Ge-

stalt gave rise to the name of Gestaltpsychologie [1, pp. 370, 371].

The gure stands for a shape dened by its contour or/and plane

and maintaining its visual autonomy. The gures are characterised by be-

ing nite, closed and foreground against the clearly separated ground.

Groups of elements, between which topological relationships have been

created, can also be read as gures. The structure of the system of ele-

ments adopts a specic shape and is subject to common principles. Those

grounds

for gures. The visual perception is organised

so that a part of the perceptive eld comes into sight as

a prominent (“standing out”) system, while the rest is

treated as the ground. To detect the entirety (a specic

shape) separated from the visual eld, the entirety is at-

tributed with the role of a gure. In other words, in Ge-

staltpsychologie, the term of gure refers to what is sepa-

rated from the rest [2, pp. 7–14].

The above-named division is recognised as one of the

primary features of perception, independent of previous

experience and concerning all people. The gure-ground

relationship is not always static. The gure is a part of the

eld attracting attention. The transfer of attention to an-

other part of the eld may introduce changes and reverse

the gure-ground organisation [2, pp. 15, 16].

In the tradition of graphic studies, an object being the

subject of representation as well as, seemingly, the dom-

inant element of the composition which is located closer

to the observer is referred to as a gure. In literature, the

subject of representation is also referred to as a positive

element in the composition in contrast to the ground, fre-

quently referred to as “negative space” [3, p. 22]. The ap-

plication of the above-named notions is related to percep-

tive dynamics, which is reserved in the rst place for the

gure, whilst the ground is seen as a passive recipient of

the energy generated inside the gure and aecting its sur-

roundings. Graphic elements surrounding the subject give

are the principle of grouping, good continuation, proximity, similarity and

contour closure [2, p. 14].

The remaining elements, not belonging to the observed object,

are assigned the role of neutral ground. The ground is perceived as

shapeless, uniform, having the unlimited eld and, apparently, spread

out behind the gure. The gure does not tear the ground apart as

the gure appears to be in the foreground in relation to the ground

[2, p. 15].

104 Magdalena Wąsowicz

Since the 2

half of the 20

century the terms of gure

and ground as well as those of a positive and a negative

have been common in the context of architecture. Their

denitions are included, among other things, in the dic-

tionary of architectural terms by Tom Porter [11, pp. 47,

48] and in the dictionary of modern architecture edited by

Willy Müller [12, p. 114]. A Pattern Language, a publi-

cation by Christopher Alexander from 1977, undoubted-

ly contributed to the popularisation of the above-named

terms (particularly as regards positive and negative

space)

[13, pp. 518, 519].

“Positive interior space” was searched for as early as

in the 1950s by Italian architect and theoretician Bruno

Zevi. His theoretical deliberations were based on a graph-

ic method emphasizing architectural space by referring to

the gure-ground relationship. Zevi stated that the rep-

resentation of architectural space in the form previously

presented by designers did not reect its properties and

the actual experiencing. In comparison with technical ad-

vancement which made the capturing of sound or image

possible at that time, Zevi found the architectural graphic

language alienated and archaic. The primary reason for

the aforesaid situation was designers’ focus on the archi-

tectural projection, being the starting point for generating

space in accordance with the modernist method of design.

In Zevi’s opinion, the above-named method was exces-

sively abstract and did not represent observer’s percep-

tion. A step towards the capturing of the essence of archi-

tectural space was the search for its graphic record. In his

publication from 1974, Zevi presented the projection of

St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome in several variants, showing

alternately the structure of material elements and space

as the gure against the ground (Fig. 1) [14, pp. 52, 53].

The graphic transformation of projection used by Zevi

served the purpose of the search for a gural synthesis

of the temple and its material structure. Zevi presented

the traditional record of the projection of the building and

its negative created by tonal inversion. The search for

a method enabling the graphic representation of both parts

was an attempt at overcoming the limitations of a two-di-

mensional drawing. In the traditional record, the walls of

the temple come out to the foreground (Fig. 1a). In the

projection transformed by tonal inversion, observer’s at-

tention focuses alternately on the gure of interior space

which has been separated from the exterior and the part

of external space which complements it (Fig. 1b). The

rst representation of the projection distinguishes walls,

the second one the interior and surroundings as correlat-

ed space. In 1966, in the course of reecting on architec-

tural drawings, Robert Venturi described the interior and

the space as “the greatest manifestation of opposites in

architecture” [15, p. 42]. He did so in his book entitled

In Pattern 106, entitled “positive exterior space”, Alexander

attempted to describe urban space as the positive element of the

composition of urban systems – in other words, the gure against the

ground of the system of buildings. The above-named pattern contains

synthetic description and diagrams illustrating examples of positive and

negative space, whose graphic solution shows the tendency to group

visible shapes into gures against the ground [13, pp. 518, 519].

the impression of being passive and increasingly distant

as they constitute the ground for gures [4, p. 92].

The article discusses the issue of application of tools

based on the postulates of Gestaltpsychologie. The inter-

pretation of two-dimensional graphic representations in

architecture which spatially order and divide the visual

eld into gure and ground (background) is presented

by means of perceptive criteria. The Gestalt theory was

used to explain the relationship between graphic rep-

resentations in architecture and the shaping of the built

environment corresponding to the recipient’s perceptive

possibilities. The study of this topic was carried out by

qualitative analytical method and bibliographic research

method. The aim of the research was to identify graphic

aspects of architectural drawing, which can be interpreted

as a representation of the antinomy of gure and ground.

In order to prove the topicality of this subject for form

creation in contemporary architectural design, the issues

discussed were illustrated with examples of the 21

cen-

tury architectural objects.

The state of research

Architectural drawings are also graphic representations

subject to the above-presented principles. Since the early

1950s, graphic representations in architecture have been

interpreted in accordance with Gestalt principles. The early

1950s were the time when such sciences as psychology and

sociology became sources of knowledge used to improve

the understanding of how the built environment aects

a human being. In his publication entitled Art and Visual

Perception: A Psychology of the Creative Eye [5], Rudolf

Arnheim, a German theoretician of art and a psychologist

of perception described the organisation of perception

based on the gure and ground in relation to works of art

and architecture. The observations were based on studies

performed in 1935 by Rubin and Koka concerning Ge-

stalt [6]. Similar studies were also performed in Poland,

among others by Juliusz Żórawski, within his research pub-

lication entitled O budowie formy architekto nicznej [The-

ory of Build of Architectural Form]

[7]. The perception

of ar ch itecture and the morphology of architectural space

were also studied by Andrzej Niezabitowski in his book

O budowie przestrzennej architektury: podsta wy metodo-

logiczne opisu, analizy i dzieła systema tyki prze strzennych

[On the spatial structure of architecture: metho do logical

bases of description, analysis and spatial sy ste matics] [9]

in 1979, and in his most recent publication O strukturze

przestrzennej obiektów architektonicznych [On the spatial

structure of architectural objects] [10].

The publication, constituting the basis for the obtainment of the

PhD degree by J. Żórawski in 1943, was published in 1962. Because

of the pioneer idea of the introduction of the psychological aspect to

architecture, the publication is regarded as an accomplishment on a global

scale. The Author presents the primary notions of Gestalt psychology

such as entirety, strong forms, weak forms, coherence, freedom of forms,

etc. By referring the knowledge contained in La Psychologie de la forme

(rst published in 1937) [8] to architectural deliberations, the publication

by J. Żórawski discusses relationships between architecture and the theo -

ries of Gestalt psychology.

Graphic depictions of form and space in architecture: a visual perception outlook 105

“Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture” regarded

as the manifesto of postmodernism. Zevi’s drawings are

a conrmation of Venturi’s thesis, where one can observe

how signicantly the forms of the interior (Fig. 1c) and

the surroundings of the building (Fig. 1d) dier.

Since the 2

half of the 20

century, the interest in the

manner of the representation of space and the extension of

possibilities of the transfer of architectural representations

have resulted from a new view of the relationships be-

tween the human and architecture seen from the angle of

psychology. The correlation between architectural struc-

tures and the spaces separating them was recognised as

a basic principle for human orientation in the built envi-

ronment. The arrangement of objects in space is subject to

complex processes of perception. This is referred both to

the conscious shaping of the built environment by the de-

signer and the process of their interpretation by the recip-

ient of architecture. On the basis of Gestalt psychology, it

was also recognised that the perception and understanding

of composition depend on the interpretation of interaction

between its elements. Perception dened as the organisa-

tion and interpretation of sensual impressions aimed to

understand surroundings is playing today a particular role

in the shaping of architecture

Figure-ground as representation

of antinomy in architecture

Architectural drawings, which highlight the gure-

ground relationship, represent designer’s intentions and

may be an attempt to abstractly present the reception of

a building by the observer. It is feasible because graph-

ic technique enables the recording of the relationship

between interiors, material objects and the surrounding

space. Graphic technique also makes it possible to identi-

The problem of depicting architectural space in psychological

terms was described in detail by Porter in his book The Architect’s Eye:

Visualization and Depiction of Space in Architecture [16].

fy space characteristics, including how it is perceived. The

arrangement of gestalt in the visual eld can refer to urban

and architectural plans, cross-sections, projections and el-

evations. The following can be visualized: the interior and

building mass; walls and their openings; buildings in the

context of its surroundings as well as the relation of inte-

riors and exterior spaces (Table 1).

Graphics based on the system of gure-ground eld

can be used to represent various aspects of architectural

design. Each two-dimensional representation of an archi-

tectural idea can be subjected to analysis and interpreta-

tion in respect of the system of gure-ground elds. For-

mal analysis can be performed by the confrontation of two

graphics being opposites (in relation to each other), e.g.,

an image in positive and negative. In the article, the author

proposes the following classication of representations

into four categories:

1) depicting interior space of the building and its mate-

rial structure: walls and space,

2) depicting walls and their openings,

3) depicting the building mass in the context of sur-

rounding spaces,

4) depicting the programme component groups.

The wall-space relationship

The basis for the creation and recording of the formal

and functional organisation of a building is architectural

projection. Projection is referred to as a horizontal section

as it constitutes the result of the intersection of elements

of a building on a given storey. In traditional technical

drawing, the components of form, function and structure

of a building are marked using lines of appropriate thick-

nesses and lled elds. Projection marks walls separating

spatial units and the interior from the surroundings. Such

a drawing enables the reading of the contour of walls and

the contour of interiors [11, p. 164].

The facilitation of the interpretation of architectural

documentation involves the emphasizing of the structur-

al elements of a building, thus improving the clarity of

Fig. 1. Diagram by B. Zevi presenting St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome:

a) simplified version of the plan, b) negative of the simplified version of the plan, c) internal space, d) external space

(elaborated by M. Wąsowicz based on [14, pp. 52, 53])

Il. 1. Diagram B. Zeviego obrazujący Bazylikę Świętego Piotra w Rzymie:

a) uproszczona wersja rzutu, b) negatyw uproszczonej wersji rzutu, c) przestrzeń wewnętrzna, d) przestrzeń zewnętrzna

(oprac. M. Wąsowicz na podstawie [14, s. 52, 53])

a b c d

106 Magdalena Wąsowicz

drawings. Usually, material objects visible in a section,

e.g., walls or other structural elements, are represented

by a black thick contour. Frequently, the contour is “re-

inforced” by lling. The eld dening the location and

borders of sectional elements is referred to as poché

Poché constitutes the representation of the structural

aspect of a building. The focusing of attention on struc-

tural elements precludes noticing the functional aspect

of a building. To observe space where users move and

function, it is necessary to notice the area (usually con-

stituting a white ground) surrounding elements of the

structure. The representation of the elements of the build-

ing structure in a projection obtained through the poché-

based presentation of elements intersecting the cutting

plane constitutes the system of elds, the arrangement of

which (to a various degree) aims at the closure of interior

space [11, p. 164]. To notice the shape of interior space it

is necessary to transfer attention to the white eld with-

in the walls. Then, the observer has the impression that

construction elements constitute the innite black eld,

The notion of poché (pocket in French) refers to the lling between

the intersection lines of solid elements such as walls or the site (in cases

of buildings embedded in the ground). The lling usually has the form

of a uniform black eld. As a result, structural elements in architectural

drawings are clearly marked and easily noticeable [11, p. 164].

spreading beyond the area corresponding to interior space

[3, p. 22]. It is therefore possible to alternately notice the

aspect of structure and usability, corresponding to each

other as a positive and a negative, marked with black and

white colours respectively (Fig. 2).

A person looking at two-dimensional representations of

architectural designs interprets the composition of gures

against the ground. However, the gures may be unstable

during the process of observation. Images can be interpret-

ed ambiguously by the perceptive apparatus as the patterns

of Gestalt structures are interpretable in more than one

manner. The aforesaid phenomenon is referred to as multi-

stability

. In one approach, poché can constitute the system

of black gures against the white ground, whereas in anoth-

er approach the white interior space can be seen as a gure

designated by the contour determined by black walls

The multistability of Gestalt structures is connected with the

possibility of “switching” between various, usually two modes of in -

ter preting the identity of an object and is primarily concerned with the

entireties using the gure-ground relationship. In other words, what in

one instant is seen as the gure can become the ground and the previously

perceived ground can be seen as the gure. In such cases, the features of

the gure and those of the ground can be attributed to various parts of

the image [18, p. 366].

A design method based on the said duality is proposed, among

others, by Herman Hertzberger. In his opinion one should avoid design

Graphic representation

Representation of correlation between the building structure components and space

Representation of façade composition, e.g. correlations between the openings and the wall

Representation of the complementary relationship of individual functional systems, e.g., room

layout with division into serving and serviced rooms

Representation of correlations between groups of buildings and spaces between these buildings

Table 1. Figure and ground imaging in architectural monochrome graphics (elaborated by M. Wąsowicz)

Tabela 1. Obrazowanie figury i tła na architektonicznych grafikach monochromatycznych (oprac. M. Wąsowicz)

Graphic depictions of form and space in architecture: a visual perception outlook 107

Noticing the shape of architectural space in at drawings

is therefore an unstable phenomenon dependent on obser -

ver’s interpretation. In terms of the drawing record of ar-

chitectural space within at composition such as a projec-

tion or section, the area of the eld representing space is

located between the elds representing the location of walls

and columns. However, not always the contour of architec-

tural space is easy to observe. In certain cases, the borders

of the positive element standing for architectural space are

determined by the illusory contour

. Therefore, the percep-

tion of the elements of a system as a certain entirety makes

it possible to imagine its non-existent parts [2, p. 17].

Space can emerge on the basis of the organisational

structure of a projection. Space can be observed through

the identication of elements constituting its contour, i.e.,

both the lines constituting the contour of elds represent-

ing walls and the array of point elements (e.g., columns)

constituting an imagined line. The eld representing inte-

rior space can be partly dened by the contour shared with

other elements of the system and partly on the basis of

the illusory contour created by perception. Both contour

types can simultaneously belong to dierent elements of

the composition of the projection [20, pp. 73, 74].

In a situation where it is not possible to observe a con-

tour, space can be interpreted as borderless, i.e., owing

between the interior of a building and its surroundings.

By means of a graphic architectural design, dened as an

arrangement of gures against the ground, it is possible to

notice the features of space or its nature.

procedures in which the architectural and urban space becomes a residual

value (the so-called space between). Instead, he advocates methods

in which the designer focuses on the shape of the interior space and the

space surrounding the building. Because this method is the opposite of the

commonly used solutions, he calls it the negative method [19, pp. 214–216].

A phenomenon responsible for complementing the observer’s

perception with missing parts of the form in order to close its contour

[20, p. 77].

There is a relationship between the type of the com-

ponents of the building structure and their form and the

shape of architectural space. The above-named correla-

tion, consisting in the possibility of noticing the forms

of walls alternately with the interior space of a building

remains in connection with the type of structure of walls

(massive or lightweight), their shape and layout. All of the

above-named correlations are accentuated in monochro-

matic drawings with poché walls.

On some plans and sections it is possible to highlight

elements of the building structure and clearly indicate the

interior eld. This is most often the case when space is

bounded by solid walls. Figure 3a presents a schematic

shape and arrangement of walls of a house in Cadoços de-

signed by Aires Mateus. The layout of the partitions trig-

gers the perception of space contained inside a building,

because clear boundaries are created for it.

There are interrelationships between the interior and

exterior where the emphasis may rest on the interior, the

space around the building, or the two may be linked by

a spatial continuum. Emphasis can be given to the perme-

ation of interior and exterior space only within the main

component of the programme. If interior space is not lim-

ited by the clearly visible contour of the walls, emphasis

can be given to space owing between the interior of the

building and its surroundings. In such a case, the contour

of interior space is not clearly dened. Figure 3b presents

a schematic shape and arrangement of lightweight walls

of Brillhart House by Brillhart Architecture. The wall ar-

rangement triggers the perception of space freely owing

through the building, as there has been a reduction of ele-

ments characteristic of the interior contour.

The wall and its openings

The relationship between wall and space determined by

the wall is similar to the composition relationship between

openings and the façade wall. Walls are perceived as posi-

Fig. 2. Relationship between the wall and interior space based on the example of Holy Rosary Church by Trahan Architects:

a) highlighting structural elements of the building, b) highlighting interior space,

c) highlighting interior space and space surrounding the building

(elaborated by M. Wąsowicz based on [17, p. 180])

Il. 2. Relacja przegrody i wnętrza na przykładzie kościoła Matki Bożej Różańcowej projektu Trahan Architects:

a) akcentująca elementy struktury budynku, b) akcentująca wnętrze, c) akcentująca wnętrze i otoczenie budynku

(oprac. M. Wąsowicz na podstawie [17, s. 180])

a b c

108 Magdalena Wąsowicz

Fig. 4. Elevations:

a) accenting the plane of the external partition, on the example of Pavillon Noir, designed by R. Ricciotti (elaborated by M. Wąsowicz based on [23]),

b) accenting the opening in the plane of the elevation, on the example of Simmons Hall dormitory designed by S. Holl

(elaborated by M. Wąsowicz based on [24, p. 76])

Il. 4. Elewacje:

a) akcentująca płaszczyznę przegrody zewnętrznej, na przykładzie projektu Pavillon Noir projektu R. Ricciottiego (oprac. M. Wąsowicz na podstawie [23]),

b) akcentująca otwór w płaszczyźnie elewacji, na przykładzie akademika Simmons Hall projektu S. Holla (oprac. M. Wąsowicz na podstawie [24, s. 76])

tive material elements, yet observer’s attention can also be

drawn to openings against the ground of the wall as well

as transparent parts of the façade and may become a gure

in the visual eld. Façades truly constitute the most com-

mon (in architecture) system of gures against the ground.

In terms of perception, a window – an opening in the

wall, small in relation to the wall area, adopts the features

of a gure, although it actually only constitutes a break

in the area of the wall. At the same time, there is the mul-

ti-level relationship between the positive and the negative.

The window constitutes an element/gure in the plane of

the façade, yet the wall itself is also limited by contour

and possesses features of a gure within the context of

the entire body of the building. It is assumed that systems

based on massive walls accentuate the positive-negative

relationship in the plane of the façade. An opening in the

solid wall of a building is perceived as cut-out having

features of a gure. A greater number of openings consti-

tutes the arrangement of elements of gures in the plane

of the façade. In such a case, the wall, as a solid element,

becomes the negative eld, i.e., ground, for the positive

element of the façade composition, i.e. an opening.

Figure 4 presents the designs of the façades that trigger

perception of the openings as the composition of gures

against the ground of the wall. In some cases, as in the Pa-

villon Noir object, by Rudy Ricciotti (Fig. 4a), the wall

can be a gural element in the composition of the façade.

Framework-type walls trigger primarily the perception of

material structure. This is dierent from the façade of the

Simmons Hall dormitory designed by Steven Holl (Fig. 4b),

where our gaze is rst directed to the openings in its plane.

In some cases, also massive walls may trigger ambig-

uous interpretation, e.g., a hotel in Dublin designed by

Aires Mateus design studio (Fig. 5). In terms of the win-

Fig. 3. Nature of space is connected with the type of wall defining the space:

a) space appears contained inside a building, house in Cadoços by Aires Mateus (elaborated by M. Wąsowicz based on [21, p. 250]),

b) space appears to flow freely through the building, Brillhart House by Brillhart Architecture (elaborated by M. Wąsowicz based on [22])

Il. 3. Charakter przestrzeni związany jest z rodzajem przegrody, jaka ją wyznacza:

a) przestrzeń zdaje się zawarta we wnętrzu budynku, przykład domu w Cadoços projektu Aires Mateus (oprac. M. Wąsowicz na podstawie [21, s. 250]),

b) przestrzeń zdaje się swobodnie przepływać przez budynek, przykład domu Brillhart projektu Brillhart Architecture (oprac. M. Wąsowicz na podstawie [22])

a b

Graphic depictions of form and space in architecture: a visual perception outlook 109

Fig. 5. Example of an elevation accentuating alternately the plane of an external partition

and an opening in this plane, on the example of a hotel in Dublin designed by Aires Mateus:

a) view of an elevation, b) view of a solid (elaborated by M. Wąsowicz based on [21, pp. 106–108])

Il. 5. Przykład elewacji akcentującej naprzemiennie płaszczyznę przegrody zewnętrznej

i otwór w tej płaszczyźnie, na przykładzie hotelu w Dublinie projektu Aires Mateus:

a) widok elewacji, b) widok bryły (oprac. M. Wąsowicz na podstawie [21, s. 106–108])

Fig. 6. The relation between a building and external space on the example of thermal baths in the Vals valley designed by P. Zumthor:

a) accenting the building among its surroundings,

b) accenting the external space (elaborated by M. Wąsowicz based on [25, p. 266])

Il. 6. Relacja budynku i przestrzeni zewnętrznej na przykładzie term w dolinie Vals projektu P. Zumthora:

a) akcentująca budynek wśród otoczenia,

b) akcentująca przestrzeń zewnętrzną (oprac. M. Wąsowicz na podstawie [25, s. 266])

dow and the wall, the positive and negative roles can be

alternately attributed to either of the aforesaid elements in

accordance with the principle of multistability.

The relationship between buildings

and exterior space

In terms of relationship, a building and its adjacent

space can be considered as antinomies. Emphasis can be

given to a building or a group of buildings on the scale of

land development plan or urban plan or to exterior archi-

tectural and urban space surrounding a building. In urban

planning, monochromatic graphics are used for the dier-

entiation of elds corresponding to the location of build-

ings and parts of the system free from building develop-

ment. In scientic reference publications, this graphic tool

is referred to as the gure-ground plan

Figure-ground plan is a simplied housing scheme presenting

relationships between buildings and spaces within a previously dened

development area. As a result, it is possible to dene the potentials of

modication, unication and continuation of the existing urban tissue by

adding or taking away spatial elements. The graphic technique known as

the gure-ground plan is based on the assumption that urban systems can

On an architectural scale, the relationship between space

and the building is dened by the development layout, the

shape of courtyards or the location of a given building

in relation to neighbouring buildings. Also the forms of

inner piazzas in relation to the bodies of buildings can be

interpreted as gures against the ground. The design of

the thermal baths in the Vals valley by Peter Zumthor can

serve as an example. A relationship is established between

the interior and the surroundings, which can be illustrated

by a scheme based on white and black elds (Fig. 6). The

meeting points of both types of space are the openings of

the front façade.

The representation of two groups of components

In some cases, juxtaposition based on the complemen-

tary shaping of groups of formal or functional compo-

nents is used as a part of an architectural solution. In such

a case, graphic emphasis is put on the parts of graphic

be interpreted as the composition of gures against the ground, where

buildings and groups of buildings adopt the role of gures, whereas

spaces between the buildings adopt the role of the ground [11].

110 Magdalena Wąsowicz

References

[1] Mallgrave H.F., Modern Architectural Theory. A Historical Survey,

1673–1968, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2009.

[2] Gordon I.E., Theories of Visual Perception, Psychology Press, Hove

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[4] Arnheim R., The rescue of art, University of California Press, Oak-

land 1992.

representation selected by the designer. In this case, the

graphic emphasis rests on the parts of the architectural

drawing selected by the designer. As shown on the exam-

ple of the Call Center in Santo Tirso designed by Aires

Mateus, the graphic technique is closely related to the

form that is seen in the drawing. The accentuation may

be given to selected groups of rooms (service rooms) con-

nected by the eld of lling with partitions and the area

above the projection level (Fig. 7a), the serviced internal

space (Fig. 7b) or the way of connecting the serviced in-

ternal space with the external space.

On an architectural scale, the graphic articulation of

selected components can be presented in schematic dia-

grams aiming at the clarication of functional organisa-

tion, circulation, zoning etc. in a building. The use of dia-

grams based on the division into components usually does

not represent the correlation between the elements of the

structure and those of space in a building.

Poché may include small parts of the programme and

is presented in at 2D views as one eld with walls (and

sometimes with the site). The purpose of such an approach

is to highlight interior space having a superior function. The

aforementioned division into two dierently shaped func-

tional groups can contain larger parts of the body, may not

be directly connected with walls and, to a greater extent, be

concerned with complementary and opposite geometries.

Conclusions

The structuring of Gestalten in the visual eld plays a key

role in the interpretation of graphic studies in architecture.

The interpretation of architecture through the prism of Ge-

stalt psychology has a long tradition and serves both the

design of the new as well as the analysis of exist ing build-

ings. In addition to primary issues related to the recog-

nition of material elements in design documentation, the

division into the gure and the ground constitutes a tool

explaining the idea of the spatial ordering of an architec-

tural object. The perception of two-dimensional elements

in projections and sections does not correspond to the

perception of a building in space. Yet there are relation-

ships between the graphic record and the visual qualities

of a three-dimensional building. On the basis of the rela-

tionship between the gure and the ground observed in ar-

chitectural graphic representations, it is possible to notice

features of space, a degree of the opening or closure of

a building in relation to its surroundings or the elucida-

tion of the conceptual aspect. Designers use the gure and

the ground to explain the structural, functional, circulation

and zoning organisation in a building and its surroundings.

Translated by

Monika Cesarz

Fig. 7. Relationship groups of components based on the example of the Santo Tirso Call Center plan by Aires Mateus:

a) highlighting servant spaces, walls and terrain, b) highlighting a served interior spaces,

c) highlighting a served interior space connected to the outdoor space (elaborated by M. Wąsowicz based on [26, p. 192])

Il. 7. Relacja grup komponentów na przykładzie Call Center Santo Tirso projektu Aires Mateus:

a) akcentująca pomieszczenia obsługujące, przegrody i teren, b) akcentująca wnętrze,

c) akcentująca połączenie wnętrza i przestrzeni otaczającej (oprac. M. Wąsowicz na podstawie [26, s. 192])

Graphic depictions of form and space in architecture: a visual perception outlook 111

Abstract

Graphic depictions of form and space in architecture: a visual perception outlook

The article discusses the issue of the interpretation of two-dimensional graphic representations in architecture which spatially order and divide

the visual eld into gure and ground (background) by means of perceptive criteria. The Gestalt theory was used to explain the relationship between

graphic representations in architecture and the shaping of the built environment corresponding to the recipient’s perceptive possibilities. The article

demonstrates that each two-dimensional representation of an architectural idea can be subjected to an analysis and interpretation in respect of the

system of gure-ground elds. The ordering of gestalts in the visual eld can also refer to urban and plot development plans, sections, projections and

façades. The gestalt-based graphic technique makes it possible to record the relationship of space and material objects in architecture, identify space

characteristics as well as clarify functional organisation, circulation, zoning and other characteristics in a building. In the article, the author proposes

the classication of representations into four categories, such as: 1) interior space of the building and its material structure: walls and internal space

as well as openings in the aforesaid walls, 2) body of the building in the context of surrounding spaces, 3) interior space and space surrounding an

architectural structure, as well as 4) programme components. This classication is presented using examples of contemporary buildings.

Key words: architecture, psychology of vision, Gestalt, architectural space, architectural graphics

Streszczenie

Graczne wyobrażenia formy i przestrzeni w architekturze w kontekście percepcji wzrokowej

W artykule omówiono zagadnienie interpretacji dwuwymiarowych przedstawień gracznych w architekturze jako determinowane kryteriami

percepcyjnymi, porządkującymi przestrzennie pole wzrokowe na gurę i tło. W oparciu o teorię Gestalt wyjaśniono związek przedstawień gracz-

nych w architekturze z kształtowaniem środowiska zbudowanego odpowiadającego możliwościom percepcyjnym odbiorcy. Wykazano, że każda

dwuwymiarowa reprezentacja idei architektonicznej może zostać poddana analizie i interpretacji w kontekście układu pól gura–tło. Porządkowanie

gestaltów w polu wzrokowym odnosić się może do planów zagospodarowania miast i działek, przekrojów, rzutów oraz elewacji. Poprzez technikę

graczną opartą na gestaltach możliwe jest rejestrowanie związku przestrzeni i obiektów materialnych w architekturze, określenie charakterystyki

przestrzeni, wyjaśnienie organizacji funkcjonalnej, cyrkulacyjnej, strefowania i innych w budynku. W artykule zaproponowano klasykację repre-

zentacji na obrazujące przestrzeń wewnętrzną i strukturę materialną obiektu: 1) przegrody i przestrzeń wewnętrzną oraz otwory w tych przegrodach;

2) bryłę budynku w kontekście otaczających przestrzeni; 3) przestrzeń wewnętrzną i otaczającą obiekt architektury, jak również 4) grupy komponen-

tów funkcjonalnych. Klasykację tę przedstawiono na przykładach budynków współczesnych.

Słowa kluczowe: architektura, psychologia widzenia, Gestalt, przestrzeń architektoniczna, graka architektoniczna

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Leogang (Austria), Mountain chapel

near the mid station of the Asitz ski lift,

design by W2 Manufaktur, Bmstr. A. Waltl,

arch, B. Krynicka

(drawing by B. Krynicka)

Leogang (Austria), Kapliczka górska

w pobliżu pośredniej stacji wyciągu

narciarskiego Asitz, projekt W2 Manufaktur,

Bmstr. A. Waltl, arch. B. Krynicka

(rys. B. Krynicka)

Graphic depictions of form and space in architecture: a visual perception outlook

Magdalena Wąsowicz

doi:10.37190/arc210310

Abstract