Haptics and the ideas of brutalist architecture

Wojciech Niebrzydowski, Agnieszka Duniewicz

doi:10.37190/arc240203

Abstract

The subject of the research presented in the article is haptics in brutalist architecture. The authors used the concept of extended haptics, including tactile and non-tactile experiences. The research aimed to identify the elements of the haptic aesthetics of brutalism. The authors used a heuristic method. The research material was initially analysed according to the following criteria: properties, spatial relations, material features, surface finish, and embodied experiences. The full research procedure included two stages – the first concerned the theoretical creative assumptions and the second covered the design results. This article describes the research process and the results of the first phase, for which the following observation criteria were used: negation, inspirations, experiments, and ideas. The result of the analyses is a characterization of the pro-haptic ideas of brutalism. The authors distinguished features based on tactile aspects but also on the cooperation of touch with other senses.

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Wojciech Niebrzydowski*, Agnieszka Duniewicz**

Haptics and the ideas of brutalist architecture

Introduction

Architecture as a design discipline is included in the

so-called visual arts, with the reservation that its products,

like sculptures or scenography, are three-dimensional spa-

tial shapes. The physicality, tangibility and spatiality of ar-

chitectural objects, which distinguish these works from at

forms, seem to have no impact on the way of perceiving

architecture as a series of two-dimensional images, which

has been shaped over the centuries. However, as Juhani

Pallasmaa points out, architecture that engages the full

human sensory apparatus is most fully constituted in the

sense of touch, in which an architectural work not only

acquires the dimension of physical presence, materiality

and three-dimensionality but also moves the recipient most

strongly, activating his holistic structures: corporeality,

psyche and spirit [1].

In this paper, the authors’ considerations focus on a spe-

cic 20

-century architectural trend, known in the histo-

DOI: 10.37190/arc240203

Published in open access. CC BY NC ND license

ry and theory of architecture as brutalism, which seems

particularly rich in haptic elements. It is revealed both in

expressive, dynamic architectural forms and in small de-

tails that encourage exploration by touch (Fig. 1). Brutalist

architecture spread all over the world after World War II. It

reached the culminating point in the 1960s to fade away in

the late 1970s. The genesis of brutalism is a very complex

problem and dates back to the interwar period, especially

to the turn in Le Corbusier’s work. The theoretical assump-

tions of the trend were dened in the British architectural

program called New Brutalism. This doctrine was created

by architects Alison and Peter Smithsons and critic and

historian Reyner Banham in the 1950s [2]. Precursors of

brutalism preferred raw aesthetic and emphasised ethical

values of architecture, such as sincerity and truth. In the

later stage of its development, the trend underwent chang-

es, resulting largely from the individualism of architects,

which reduced its coherence.

In the architectural discourse on brutalism, there is no

reection on the identity and coherence of the haptic lan-

guage of this architecture. This gap concerns both the is-

sues of intentional pro-haptic design and the presence of

haptic components in completed brutalist works. The au-

thors decided to subject both of these aspects to scientic

analysis. Moreover, in their research, they do not focus

Abstract

The subject of the research presented in the article is haptics in brutalist architecture. The authors used the concept of extended haptics, including

tactile and non-tactile experiences. The research aimed to identify the elements of the haptic aesthetics of brutalism. The authors used a heuristic

method. The research material was initially analysed according to the following criteria: properties, spatial relations, material features, surface nish,

and embodied experiences. The full research procedure included two stages – the rst concerned the theoretical creative assumptions and the second

covered the design results. This article describes the research process and the results of the rst phase, for which the following observation criteria

were used: negation, inspirations, experiments, and ideas. The result of the analyses is a characterization of the pro-haptic ideas of brutalism. The

authors distinguished features based on tactile aspects but also on the cooperation of touch with other senses.

Key words: brutalist architecture, haptics, touch in architecture, multi-sensory design

* ORCID:

0000-0002-5966-4333. Faculty of Architecture, Biały stok

University of Technology, Poland, e-mail: w.niebrzydowski@pb.edu.pl

** ORCID:

0000-0002-4596-4052. Faculty of Architecture, Białystok

University of Technology, Poland.

24 Wojciech Niebrzydowski, Agnieszka Duniewicz

only on the aspect of physical touch. They use the broadly

understood concept of haptics – extended haptics, which

includes both direct tactile experiences as well as tactile

experiences mediated by other senses.

The main goal of our research is to discover, name and

scientically organize the elements of haptic aesthetics pre -

sent in the theory of brutalist architecture. A further, long-

term goal of the authors is to change the current, ocular-

centric research perspective in architecture in favour of

a perspective related to extended haptics.

State of research

As Pallasmaa notes, the topic of haptics in architecture

is still poorly understood and hardly enters the scientic

discourse. This fact may be surprising in the context of the

signicant advancement of the sense of touch that has tak-

en place in philosophy. It is worth recalling the positions

of 19

and 20

century “philosophers of touch”, such as

Edmund Husserl [3], José Ortega y Gasset [4], Emmanuel

Lévinas [5], Maurice Merleau-Ponty [6]. Interestingly, the

consequences of phenomenological philosophical trends

can be found in the architectural work of designers such as

Steven Holl, Glenn Murcutt, Peter Zumthor, Kengo Kuma,

whose works exude extraordinary haptic sensitivity, even

sensuality of architectural matter. Thus, a haptic approach

is present in contemporary architecture, although it does

not nd adequate support in the theoretical framework of

architecture. Pallasmaa’s research indicates that one of the

historical determinants that sealed ocularcentrism as a par-

adigm of architecture was the development of perspective

[7]. The result of this discovery was the development of

a “painting” approach to architecture, based on perceiving

solids as linear compositions. The works of Heinrich Wölf-

in attempted to question the painting nature as a principle

of architecture, pointing to the existence of “tangible” ar-

chitecture, related to the sense of touch [8, p. 19]. A clear

attempt to return to sensory science, including haptics, was

also made by László Moholy-Nagy (space in relation to the

body and senses) [9], as well as other representatives of the

Bauhaus, such as Walter Gropius, who gloried manual

work and tactile learning of the properties of building ma-

terials. This approach, however, failed to convince the sci-

entic community, committed to the paradigm that when

perceiving architecture we mainly use the sense of sight.

This conict is well illustrated by the words of Jadwiga

Sławińska, who in the 1960s stated: Every architecture is

a material reality but at the same time none is, as we do

not use touch to perceive it. It can be said that architecture

is purely optical because it is perceived through sight [10,

p. 32].

The status of architecture as a visual art was also con-

solidated by historical research linking art with psycholo-

gy. The results of this marriage were progressive theories

explaining the principles of visual perception [11], [12]. In

these works, attention is again drawn to the “painting” op-

tics, expressed in the tendency to write about solids as at

gures. Interestingly, this approach dominates even in

Ru-

dolf Arnheim’s architectural research [13], although at the

same time many haptic formulations appear there, e.g., the

density of an object, an observer experiencing compression

and extension, vertical direction as overcoming the force

of gravity, pressure, intrusion, expansion, ow. Pioneering

works in the eld of aesthetics [14], [15] are also based

on similar visual foundations, almost completely omitting

the sense of touch. Even if haptic elements appear in these

works, there is no clear indication of touch as a sense re-

sponsible for aesthetic experiences.

The authors of this article note the emerging interest

in the topic of haptics among contemporary researchers.

These studies, which are largely the result of Pallasmaa’s

pro-haptic manifestos, are usually aimed at “recovering”

the sense of touch in academic discussions about art [16]

and architecture [17]. Among them, it is worth mentioning

the research by Marcin Charciarek, who very accurately

captures haptic phenomena (“liquid contour”, “eye restless -

ness”, “structural instability”, “drilling into matter”) [18,

pp. 18, 35, 76, 157] and presenting the importance of the

so-called “material imagination” [18, p. 115]. These stud-

ies, few in number and developing outside the mainstream

of aesthetics, do not lead to a change in existing paradigms.

Polish interdisciplinary projects “In the Space of Touch”

and “In the Culture of Touch” were an attempt to combine

scientic voices into a broader discourse [19]. Their eects

are philosophical, social and linguistic studies related to the

culture-forming role and behavioural signicance of touch.

Taking into account the above facts, it should be stated

that haptic issues are underestimated in the professional

literature on architectural theory. This is evidenced by the

decit of research and the scarcity of scientic publica-

tions on these issues. Modern methods and analytical tools

used in the eld of architectural aesthetics also clearly en-

noble vision, focusing on the active, creative role of this

sense. Another perceived problem is the poorly developed

scientic terminology related to haptic perception.

Fig. 1. Austin Arts Center in Hartford

– texture of corrugated concrete as a tactile element

of brutalist buildings, 1963–1964

(photo by W. Niebrzydowski)

Il. 1. Austin Arts Center w Hartford – faktura żłobkowanego betonu

jako taktylny element budynków brutalistycznych, 1963–1964

(fot. W. Niebrzydowski)

Haptics and the ideas of brutalist architecture 25

Methods

In their research, the authors used a heuristic method

including new observation techniques. The research eld

– brutalist architecture – has been re-analysed using a dif-

ferent perspective related to haptic perception. Therefore,

elements that had previously been treated marginally or

had been left aside from previous research (which resulted

from the strongly ocularcentric perspective) were subject-

ed to focused study. The authors intended to capture new,

previously undescribed facts about the haptic nature of

brutalist architecture and to examine the mechanisms of

its impact on the recipient.

The conducted research used the artistic and historical

scientic perspective proposed by Marta Smolińska, in-

troducing the concept of extended haptics [20]. Haptics

understood in this way include, on the one hand, tactile

experiences – real, actual, “fullled” tactile acts, and on

the other hand – other, non-tactile experiences that engage

the sense of touch but do not take place physically and di-

rectly (Fig. 2). As Smolińska explains, works of art that

through other sensory modalities, such as sight, hearing,

kinaesthetic system, taste, and smell, are also haptic: […]

probe the recipient’s sense of touch, without necessarily

requiring fullment in physical contact [16, pp. 66, 67].

Haptic experiences are not only the result of the direct

work of the senses, but also the result of the joint work

of the overall external and internal human structures [21].

Presenting a wide spectrum of haptic experiences in archi-

tecture, the authors points out:

– eects achievable in bodily and sensory contact with

space (observations, sensations, physical eects of touch),

– eects related to basic spatial orientation,

– eects of mental processes (concepts, symbols, con-

ceptual structures, context, etc.),

–

haptic memory eects (pre-perception, haptic memo-

ries),

– eects of haptic imagination (reproductive imagina-

tion, productive imagination, processing imagination),

–

psychic “touches” (emotions, needs, fears, traumas, etc.),

– spiritual “touches” (idea, personal values, religious

values, moral values, etc.).

The scientic approaches mentioned above became the

basis for the authors’ research in the eld of brutalist archi-

tecture. The authors used a research procedure involving

two-pronged analyses of the research material. This divi-

sion reects the relationship between creative intentions

and the nal aesthetic expression of the work [22]. Hence,

the authors decided to observe brutalist architecture divid-

ed into theoretical creative assumptions (stage one of re-

search) and their practical results (stage two of research).

The analyses conducted in the rst stage were subordinated

to the discovery of haptic threads in the crystallizing ideas

of brutalism, while the analyses conducted in the second

stage were aimed at dening the haptic features that are

carriers of the aesthetic values of the mature trend.

Both stages of the study consisted rst of all in the tar-

geted ltration of research material according to establish-

ed selection criteria. The authors looked for these crite -

ria among aspects related to architectural aesthetics and

achiev able through touch (in cooperation with other

senses).

From all the experiences dening haptics in architec-

ture, the research team established the following selection

criteria:

– spatial properties,

– spatial relations,

– material features,

– surface nishing,

– embodied spatial experiences.

In the next step, the research material was analysed ac-

cording to established observation criteria (described later

in the article). Based on the established criteria, haptic fea-

tures specic to the theory of brutalist architecture were

identied and described.

In the rst part of the study, the authors relied primarily

on literature sources, including statements by the precur-

sors of brutalism, as well as studies by architecture crit-

ics commenting on the new trend on an ongoing basis or

from a time perspective. In the second stage, the authors

analysed a wide group of brutalist buildings erected in the

years 1950–1980.

This article describes only the rst phase of the research.

The second phase will be presented in the next article.

Haptic threads

in the theory of brutalism

The analyses carried out in the rst phase of the re-

search included the study of haptic threads, which are the

theoretical foundation of brutalist architecture. The authors

stated that, similarly to other, naturally evolving trends in

architecture, the formation of brutalism was in fact a multi-

stage process, preceded by such phenomena as contesting

existing views, searching for new sources of inspiration,

and experimenting with new means of expression. On this

basis, the authors formulated the following observation

Fig. 2. Types of sensory impressions within extended haptics

(elaborated by A. Duniewicz)

Il. 2. Rodzaje wrażeń zmysłowych w aspekcie haptyczności poszerzonej

(oprac. A. Duniewicz)

sensory experiences within

extended haptics

tactical experiences

non-tactile haptic experiences

generated by other senses

“touch” through sight

“touch” through hearing

“touch” through smell

“touch” through taste

“touch” through kinesthesia

26 Wojciech Niebrzydowski, Agnieszka Duniewicz

ings were to be eternal, inviolable symbols of the new era.

However, in this way, they became alien to ordinary people

for whom ageing and passing are immanent components of

life and reality. Brutalist architects saw this aspect clear-

ly and gave their trend an existential character. Signs of

ageing and patination of buildings and their elements were

of interest to English architects and artists associated with

New Brutalism.

A characteristic solution in modernism was the use of

intangible solids and large glazing that made the building

feel weightless. The transparency of the buildings, almost

devoid of load-bearing elements allowing the free ow of

air and sunlight was a manifestation of new construction

and material possibilities [10, p. 51]. The legitimacy of

these anti-haptic experiments of modernism was under-

mined by brutalist architects who saw the need to return to

such values as physicality, weight and materiality. These

features became so dominant over time that Banham stated

that brutalism was “the architecture of massive plasticity

and coarse surfaces” [24, p. 47].

Haptic inspiration of brutalist architects

The inspiration of the pioneers of the brutalist trend

came from very dierent sources. However, the two ma-

jor factors should be pointed out when it comes to the de-

velopment of the haptic aspect of the new trend. The rst

was vernacular architecture, which naturally grew out of

the most fundamental values in architecture. Traditional

buildings were also the most connected to people’s daily

lives and interacted directly with all human senses. The

second factor was avant-garde post-war art, seeking new

means of expression in painting, photography and sculp-

ture. Particularly important for contacts between architects

and artists was the Independent Group formed in London

in 1952 [25].

An example of vernacular architecture are the French

shermen’s huts, with which Le Corbusier became fascinat-

ed in the interwar years [26]. Residents identify with the

huts and perceive them with all their senses (the coarseness

of natural materials, interiors permeated with the smell of

sh, the sound of waves coming through the window, and

the wind felt when repairing nets in the arcade of the house).

Le Corbusier wanted architecture consistent with reality,

raw, authentic and appealing to the feelings of users. A sim-

ilar fascination with vernacular architecture can be seen in

other brutalist architects, who were often inspired by the

traditional buildings of the regions they came from. A clear

example is Japanese brutalism and the works of such archi-

tects as Kenzo Tange or Sachio Otani (Fig. 3) [27].

Paradoxically, at forms of art became a valuable

source of inspiration for the pro-haptic ideas of the bru-

talists. Researchers of the Smithsons’ work do not acci-

dentally note the habit of creating scrapbooks by architects

[28, p. 64]. The unobvious juxtapositions of at images

found their way into later compositions of solids and tex-

tures. The architects were also fascinated by the possibil-

ities of photography, as evidenced by their collaboration

with photographer Nigel Henderson. The result of this

cooperation was the exhibition “Parallel of Life and Art”

criteria related to the search for phenomena of haptic prov-

enance:

– negation of the previous haptic aesthetics,

– haptic inspirations,

– haptic experiments,

– haptic ideas.

Negation of the anti-haptic nature

of modernist architecture

Brutalism, although by some researchers is included in

the late phase of modernism [23], in many points is a de-

nial of aesthetic values characteristic of the International

Style. Precursors and then representatives of the brutalist

trend often contested modernist ideas, questioning their

validity and consistency with the new needs and the image

of the modern world. They pointed to the utopian nature

of modernist ideas, as well as the divergence between the-

ory and practice. As the author’s research has shown, the

anti-haptic nature of modernism was also the subject of

criticism. The most important features of modernism ne-

gated by brutalist architects included abstract forms and

the devaluation of the meaning of the material, alienation

and universality of forms, timelessness and machine per-

fection, dematerialization and the obsession of lightness.

Modernist buildings exhibited simplied, rectangular

shapes, as well as smooth white plaster and glass. Real

building materials and construction elements were gener-

ally hidden behind them. This problem was noticed in the

interwar period by Auguste Perret, Frank Lloyd Wright,

and Hugo Häring, whose works are perceived as antici-

pating the brutalist trend. Brutalist architects shared the

opinions of the precursors of the trend and dissociated

themselves from the aesthetics of smooth, monochromatic

surfaces devoid of tactile attributes, where the plane re-

mains neutral and mute, reduced only to the role of lling

the contour.

Fascination with the machine and its products led the

modernists to the apotheosis of perfection. Its emanation

were awless, smooth surfaces of buildings. The build-

Fig. 3. Sachio Otani, Kyoto International Conference Center, 1963–1966

(photo by S. Smith)

Il. 3. Sachio Otani, Międzynarodowe Centrum Konferencyjne w Kioto,

1963–1966 (fot. S. Smith)

Haptics and the ideas of brutalist architecture 27

Fig. 4. Ewa Dziekońska and Marek Dziekoński,

Museum of “Panorama Racławicka” in Wrocław

– exposed air exhaust chimney reflecting the principle

of emphasizing technical elements, 1966–1970

(photo by W. Niebrzydowski)

Il. 4. Ewa Dziekońska i Marek Dziekoński,

Muzeum “Panoramy Racławickiej” we Wrocławiu

– wyeksponowana czerpnia wentylacyjna jako odzwierciedlenie

zasady podkreślania elementów technicznych, 1966–1970

(fot. W. Niebrzydowski)

(with a telling subtitle “New Visual Order”). The compo-

sition of the posters forced the visitors to move from place

to place. The kinaesthetic sense of the observer, activated

in this way, supported the perception and understanding of

the exhibition.

The Smithsons became interested in haptic solutions, es-

pecially the textural aspect while collaborating with sculp -

tor

Eduardo Paolozzi. His works moved the viewer with

their heaviness, crudeness and rough surfaces, which,

when approached, turned out to be composed of various

smaller objects. To make his sculptures, Paolozzi used

some found objects of everyday use such as gears, cutlery,

electric switches, fragments of toys and other objects of

mass production. Cast in bronze (rarely in concrete) they

provoked touching and examining the complex structure

of their surface. Jean Dubuet’s paintings also drew the

Smithsons’ attention to the textural aspect of art. He pre-

ferred spontaneously applying a thick layer of paint (or

other materials, e.g. asphalt, mud) and smearing it to ob-

tain an uneven, expressive texture. He believed that in this

way the artist is able […] to imprint the most immediate

traces that he may have of his thoughts and rhythms and

impulses coursing through his arteries and running along

the length of his nerve endings [29, p. 35].

Haptic experiments

Precursors of brutalist architecture checked their inspi-

rations and emerging ideas through specic architectural

and artistic experiments. These works became milestones

and set directions for further development of the trend.

Le Corbusier’s turn towards sincere and true archi-

tecture resulted in massive, heavy houses made of stone,

wood and brick, i.e., Maison de Mme de Mandrot in Le

Pradet (1931), the holiday house Le Sextant in Les Mathes

(1935), and Petite Maison de Week-end in Boulogne-sur-

Seine (1935). These buildings reected the architect’s be-

lief in the need to reject abstraction and the absolute dom-

ination of sight. They had rough textures showing how the

building was erected by local craftsmen. Such materiality,

immediacy, and contact with ordinary materials became the

attributes of brutalist architecture in the post-war period.

The Smithsons, together with Henderson and Paolozzi,

moving from art to architecture, created a semi-architec-

tural work – the installation “Patio and Pavilion” (1956)

for the London exhibition “This is Tomorrow”. The wood-

en shed they designed, surrounded by a sandy yard, was

a reference to the archetype of the human habitat as a space

that evokes the greatest emotions of users and is closest to

their senses. The Smithsons emphasized that this type of

architectural roots will also be important in the future [30].

This work shows the Smithsons’ belief in the great impor-

tance of sincerity of material and construction. The shed’s

primitively shaped structure was completely exposed and

the boards were left unnished. The authors wrote about

their installation: We were concerned with the seeing of

materials for what they were: the woodiness of wood, the

sandiness of sand. With this came a distaste of the simu-

lated (after: [31, p. 201]). The interest in vernacular archi-

tecture visible in “Patio and Pavilion” but also in the pub-

lications and works of other brutalist architects shows that

they noticed the role of senses other than the sense of sight.

Haptic elements in the doctrine of brutalism

In the doctrine of New Brutalism created by the Smith-

sons, four basic ideas can be distinguished, namely the

idea of Sincerity, the idea of As Found, the idea of Image,

and the idea of Linking Life and Architecture [32]. During

the development of the brutalist trend, these ideas were

largely continued and haptic aspects, undoubtedly present

in the doctrine of New Brutalism, were even strengthened.

The idea of Sincerity was derived from such values as

truth and directness. It concerned the honest display of

building materials, load-bearing structure, and technical

ele ments. According to the creators of New Brutalism, each

material was supposed to show only what it is. Materials

were to be used as found, i.e., without nishing and aestheti-

cization, just like found objects in the works of avant-garde

artists. The structure was to be not only visible in the form

of the building but also to determine its character. The ar-

chitects wanted the form of the building to show how it

was constructed and with what materials. In addition, they

wanted to show how the building works and therefore they

exhibited installations and technical elements (Fig. 4). In

the later phase of brutalist architecture, however, there was

a departure from certain assumptions of the idea of Sincer-

ity, including the surface treatment of materials (especially

concrete), as well as the sophisticated shaping of structural

and technical elements. In fact, these changes increased the

haptic expression of the buildings. For example, mechan-

ical treatment of concrete surfaces (such as hammering)

increased their roughness and exposed the aggregate used

to make them. On the other hand, aestheticizing the shapes

28 Wojciech Niebrzydowski, Agnieszka Duniewicz

of structural elements was often related to the reection of

the ow of forces in the structure, which additionally stim-

ulated the kinaesthetic sense of the observer.

The idea of Sincerity (combined with a fascination with

vernacular architecture) also inuenced the glorication of

craftsmanship. It was supposed to humanize brutalist archi-

tecture and was a departure from the modernist aesthetics of

the machine. Craft methods allowed to achieve individual

eects that increased the artistic value of the building. The

principle of showing the method of erection in the façades

of the building was often used. Architectural honesty also

required leaving uncamouaged defects and inaccuracies

on surfaces, which led to “imperfectionism” (Fig. 5).

Some

architects (including Le Corbusier and Vilanova Artigas)

also highly valued the eects of the ageing of materials,

i.e., the patina covering them. One of the charms of exposed

concrete (and another excellent reason why it should nev-

er be rendered or painted) is that it tends to improve with

age. As the years pass, the Surface of a structure in visual

concrete acquires a living patina which gives it added live-

liness and expression [33, p. 64].

The basis of the As Found idea was the objective recep-

tion of reality. John Voelcker emphasized the specic role

of the architect, who becomes […] a kind of resonator that

builds in response to a complicated poly-incidence of con-

ditions [34, p. 184]. He rejects all preconceived solutions

and always starts his project from scratch, analysing the

design situation in all its complexity. According to these

assumptions, architects created […] a unique solution for

a unique situation [2, p. 72]. This approach to architectur-

al design distinguished brutalism from modernism, which

preferred universal solutions and the unication of forms.

The idea of As Found, therefore, went beyond the mate-

rial and construction aspect. It ordered architects to see all

things and phenomena as they really are. Every, even the

most common object or place had a meaning. In the cre-

ative process of an architect, ordinary, trivial things could

be used, which, reinterpreted by the designer, became valu-

able and important. These principles led the brutalists to

the apotheosis of the ordinariness. This was expressed, e.g.,

in the use of prosaic, readily available materials, such as

concrete, brick, wood, stone, and sheet metal. In the ini-

tial phase of brutalism, it also inuenced the simplicity of

forms. However, in this aspect, changes took place very

quickly and with the ongoing development of the trend, the

forms of buildings became more and more complex and

even extraordinary (Fig. 6).

The idea of As Found contributed to noticing various

aspects of the context, and thanks to it, references to the

local climate, culture, way of life and architectural tradition

appeared in brutalism. The architects used, albeit in a pro-

cessed way, solutions familiar to users, facilitating the un-

derstanding of complex brutalist buildings. The spectrum of

these solutions, the materials used, the designed forms and

elements became much wider than in modernism, which in-

uenced the stimulation of various senses. Thanks to this

diversity, the sense of sight also came into stronger cooper-

ation with the senses of touch and kinaesthesia, because the

process of perception required the use of peripheral vision.

Pallasmaa argues that the true essence of life experience is

formed by unconscious haptic imagery and unfocused pe-

ripheral vision [1, p. 13]. This is because focused vision

confronts us with the world, while peripheral vision im-

merses us in its body.

The idea of Image dened the role of the architectur-

al form and referred to the problem of human perception

of the building. It concerned all kinds of human mental

reactions in contact with architecture, including, among

others feelings, associations, and stimulation to specic

behaviours and actions. According to Banham, “memora-

bility” was one of the most important features of Brutalist

architecture [2, p. 359]. The image created in the mind of

the recipient did not have to satisfy or give him pleasure

but it should move him. For the brutalists, image was not

Fig. 5. Marcel Breuer, Becton Engineering and Applied Sciences Center

in New Haven – defects of concrete texture

as an example of preconceived imperfectionism, 1969–1970

(photo by W. Niebrzydowski)

Il. 5. Marcel Breuer, Becton Engineering and Applied Sciences Center

w New Haven – usterki betonowej faktury

jako przykład założonego imperfekcjonizmu, 1969–1970

(fot. W. Niebrzydowski)

Fig. 6. Norman Engleback, Hayward Gallery in London

– extremely complex and extraordinary architectural form, 1964–1968

(photo by W. Niebrzydowski)

Il. 6. Norman Engleback, Hayward Gallery w Londynie

– skrajnie złożona i wyrafinowana forma architektoniczna, 1964–1968

(fot. W. Niebrzydowski)

Haptics and the ideas of brutalist architecture 29

an aesthetic category and they did not use concepts such as

beauty or ugliness.

Brutalist architects rejected the abstract forms of inter-

war modernism, as they recognized that only objects char-

acterized by reality have a distinct image. They doubted

that almost intangible, translucent buildings with enigmatic

forms would be remembered by their users. A strong form,

with clear contours, silhouette and mass, aects a person

much more intensely. Therefore, as Christian Nor berg-

Schulz puts it, it was important to give the building a ho-

listic, physical presence [35, p. 211]. Heavy and dynamic

brutalist buildings appealed to many senses, including the

kinaesthetic sense of the users (Fig. 7).

The idea of Linking Life and Architecture points to

the humanistic foundations of the brutalist trend. The

architects recognized the importance of the relationship

between man and space, as well as the need to create fa-

vourable conditions for establishing social contacts. They

emphasized the importance of basic spatial relationships

– proximity, continuity and limitation, as well as the basic

elements of space – place, direction and zone. They treat-

ed buildings not as static objects but as systems of spatial

connections that can be recognized in movement. There-

fore, the circulation of people became a determinant of

projects, and the articulation of communication elements

conrmed it (Fig. 8). Many buildings were integrated with

Fig. 8. Denys Lasdun,

Institute of Education

– University of London

– articulation of communication

elements, 1975–1979

(photo by W. Niebrzydowski)

Il. 8. Denys Lasdun,

Institute of Education

– University of London

– artykulacja elementów

komunikacyjnych, 1975–1979

(fot. W. Niebrzydowski)

Fig. 7. Alison Smithson

and Peter Smithson, Robin Hood

Gardens Residential Estate

in London – heavy concrete

forms, 1969–1972

(photo by W. Niebrzydowski)

Il. 7. Alison Smithson i Peter

Smithson, zespół mieszkaniowy

Robin Hood Gardens

w Londynie – ciężkie betonowe

formy, 1969–1972

(fot. W. Niebrzydowski)

30 Wojciech Niebrzydowski, Agnieszka Duniewicz

– bringing out the true nature of the material (“the

wood iness of wood, the sandiness of sand”) and rejection

of imitations.

Re. 4.

Brutalist ideas were based on values strongly related to

haptics:

– clarity and integrity of form – glorication of the

building process, a special focus on the sense of materiali-

ty, plasticity and gravity,

– sincerity – truth and directness of the material, struc-

ture and technical elements,

– bodily experience of materials as they are, the apothe-

osis of their ordinariness, commonness without the need

for aestheticization,

– the relationship between architecture and life, sym-

bolically exemplied by movement (understood as the dy-

namics of solids but also the movement of users).

The results of the authors’ research lead to the conclu -

sion that the foundations of brutalist haptic aesthetics de -

veloped to a large extent through opposition to the anti-hap-

tic language of modernism. This is indicated by a number

of counter-values promoted by brutalists, such as:

– materiality and heaviness instead of dematerialization

and lightness,

– the sculptural nature of the forms and the spatiality of

the façades instead of the painterly nature of the forms and

the atness of the façades,

– surface roughness instead of surface smoothness,

– sincerity and truth instead of articial perfection,

– transience instead of timelessness,

– emphasizing the dierent properties of materials in-

stead of unifying the character of the materials,

– the importance of a place and diversity (uniqueness)

instead of alienation and universality,

– active, bodily experience of space by man instead of

passive observation.

The author’s studies of the theoretical assumptions of

brutalism also revealed threads drawn from earlier histori-

cal epochs. These include, among others:

– cult of craftsmanship and ordinariness (propagated,

among others, by the Arts and Crafts movement),

– dynamism of forms (characteristic, among others, of

baroque),

– expression of static forces in the structure of the build-

ing (also visible in expressionism, futurism and construc-

tivism),

–

aesthetics of the ruin (also present in the Romantic era).

Summary

As research has shown, the aesthetics of the new trend

was shaped in opposition to the anti-haptic nature of the

International Style. Haptic threads were also noticed, be-

ing a creative transposition or continuation of features tak-

en from other eras and historical styles, such as baroque,

romanticism, expressionism, futurism, and constructiv-

ism. Taking into account the scale and intensity of haptic

phenomena discovered in the study, it should be said that

brutalism in architecture is an extremely haptic trend. Its

aesthetics was based on a strong, encoded by the architects

the neighbourhood in terms of communication, and the

strongly accented communication spaces embodied the

links between the buildings and the urban environment. In

order to understand the brutalist building, the user had to

move around, carefully observe and look for spatial and

compositional relationships between its parts. And these

relationships were often based on innovative, non-geo-

metric ordering systems, for example, on the principle of

articulating functions in the form of a building. To pro-

voke the observer to move, the architects increased his

emotions and curiosity by introducing surprising spatial

solutions, complicated and disorienting communication

sys tems, scale disturbances, and even solutions that evoke

a sense of danger.

Conclusions

The analyses conducted by the authors allowed them to

discover strong haptic elements present in the theoretical

foundations of brutalism.

Although in the statements of brutalist architects, there

are no literal declarations or calls to use touch as an archi-

tectural medium, it has been found that pro-haptic threads

appear in fact at all stages leading to the crystallization of

a new style. The following should be mentioned:

1) contesting the anti-haptic aesthetics of modernism,

2) pro-haptic inspirations,

3) haptic experiments bringing out specic spatial and

material values,

4) developing guidelines and doctrines dening the hap -

tic

values of brutalism.

Re. 1.

Taking into account the polemic with the modernist ap-

proach to haptics, we can point to the critical attitude of bru-

talist architects towards the following features of modernism:

– devaluation of the meaning of the material,

– abstractness of forms and their alienation,

– striving for timeless perfection,

– striving for dematerialization and lightness.

Re. 2.

When looking for inspiration for their ideas, brutalist

architects used the following pro-haptic motifs:

– vernacular architecture – authentic, raw, real architec-

ture “fused” with man and related to his bodily needs,

– movement and kinaesthesia as a way of viewing

a work of art, constructing a holistic image from many in-

terconnected fragments,

– experiencing the structure and texture of the work

with the human body, discovering the rhythm of the art-

ist’s movements, traces of his tools and hand, noticing the

haptic beauty of everyday objects.

Re. 3.

In terms of experiments, haptic threads can be found in

the following phenomena:

– a return to the massiveness of buildings, the weight of

materials, the use of these features as attributes of “reality”,

– emphasizing roughness, imperfections, simple tech-

nologies,

– reaching for the habitat archetype as the architecture

closest to humans,

Haptics and the ideas of brutalist architecture 31

suggestion of experiencing with the body, tactile sensa-

tions and moving the haptic imagination. This imagination

is inseparably intertwined with movement (the movement

of the observer and the “movement” of solids) as well as

with metaphorically understood time (the viewer as a par-

ticipant in the construction process and a witness to the life

and ageing of the building).

The conducted research complements and enriches the

hitherto dominant research approach, referring only to vi-

sual aesthetics. The result of this scientic work is not so

much the discovery of completely new factors shaping the

aesthetics of brutalism but proving the haptic provenance

of phenomena considered by many researchers to be visual.

Clarication of these facts seems to restore the proper hi-

erarchy and the role of the senses present in the experience

of architecture. It also serves a deeper understanding of the

mechanisms of human cognition.

In the authors’ opinion, further research is necessary to

organize the areas of architectural theory closely related to

haptic aesthetics. Using the procedure proposed by the re-

search team, analogous studies of other architectural trends

can be performed. This method also seems appropriate for

comparative analyses, dierentiating particular trends.

Translated by

Wojciech Niebrzydowski

Acknowledgements

This research was carried out as part of work WZ/WA-IA/5/2023 and

work WZ/WA-IA/4/2023 at the Białystok University of Technology and

nanced from a research subsidy provided by the Ministry of Education

and Science of Poland.

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References

32 Wojciech Niebrzydowski, Agnieszka Duniewicz

Streszczenie

Haptyczność a idee architektury brutalistycznej

Przedmiotem badań przedstawionych w artykule są wątki haptyczne w architekturze brutalistycznej. Autorzy posłużyli się koncepcją haptyczności

poszerzonej, obejmującą doświadczenia taktylne oraz nietaktylne. Celem badań była identykacja elementów haptycznej estetyki brutalizmu. Autorzy

zastosowali metodę heurystyczną. Materiał badawczy poddano wstępnej analizie według następujących kryteriów: właściwości, relacji przestrzen-

nych, cech materiału, wykończenia powierzchni, wrażeń ucieleśnionych. Pełna procedura obejmowała dwa etapy – pierwszy dotyczył teoretycznych

założeń twórczych, drugi obejmował rezultaty projektowe. W artykule opisano proces badawczy i wyniki pierwszej fazy, w której zastosowano na-

stępujące kryteria obserwacji: negację, inspiracje, eksperymenty, idee. Wynikiem analiz jest charakterystyka prohaptycznych idei brutalizmu. Autorzy

wyróżnili cechy oparte na taktylności, ale także na współpracy dotyku z innymi zmysłami.

Słowa kluczowe: architektura brutalistyczna, haptyczność, dotyk w architekturze, projektowanie multisensoryczne