Late Romanesque baptismal font from St. Nicholas Church in Grudziądz – import from Gotland

Janusz Maciej Nowiński

doi:10.37190/arc230301

Abstract

The article discusses the study of the baptismal font located next to the presbytery of Saint Nicholas parish church in Grudziądz. The aim of the research conducted in 2023 was to verify current views on its centuries-old history. Our study presents the history of the object, its artistic provenance, iconography and ideological content. Based on the research, it was found that the late Romanesque baptismal bowl is an original work of Gotland provenance, dating back to the 2nd half of the 14th century. Its Gotland origin is evidenced by formal, compositional and iconographic analogies connecting its creator with the style of Gotland workshops known as the so-called Fröjel Group that was active in Gotland and southern Scandinavia around the mid-14th century. The decisive argument for the origin of the baptismal font from Gotland was the petrographic examination of its stone carried out in July 2023, which showed that it was made of Gotland limestone found in the Hoburgen deposits. This work should therefore be treated as an import from Gotland. The article also emphasizes that in order to illustrate the theological message, the creator of the baptismal font – in accordance with the tradition present in his artistic environment – used symbolic representations of animals, the iconography of which and the dramaturgy of actions involving them were taken from the medieval bestiary – Physiologus. The beasts shown on the baptismal font, exorcised by baptism, walk in a row towards Christ symbolized by a lion.

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2023

3(75)

Janusz Maciej Nowiński*

Late Romanesque baptismal font from St. Nicholas Church

in Grudziądz – import from Gotland

Introduction

From the middle of the 9

century, when at Roman

Synod Pope Leon IV obliged parish priests to place a bap-

tismal font in churches they administered [1, p. 109], this

equipment has become a symbol of the parish church and

one of the conditions necessary for its consecration. Hav-

ing a baptismal font was not only a right but also a priv-

ilege of the parish church while monastery churches and

chapels of religious confraternities did not have this right

Baptismal fonts of

the parish church in Grudziądz

In St. Nicholas Parish Church in Grudziądz, whose be

ginnings date back to the turn of the 14

century [2, p. 92

– here earlier source literature], [3, pp. 25–27], three me-

dieval stone baptismal fonts have been preserved. Today,

they constitute the original testimonies of its centuries-old

history. At present, two of them serve as holy water fonts

at the entrances to the church (Fig. 1, II and III). The

third one – the most outstanding artistically – which is

placed near the presbytery in the south-eastern end of the

nave (Fig. 1, I) still performs the function of the baptis-

mal source of Grudziądz Parish Church and this article

is devoted to it. It is aimed at a monographic study of the

baptismal font as regards its history, form, iconography,

artistic provenance, as well as ideological contents and

imagery of representations which decorate it. As part of

* ORCID: 0000-0001-9486-961X. Institute of History of Art, Cardi-

nal Stefan Wyszyński University in Warsaw, Poland, email: nowinski@

vp.pl

In the sources and former liturgical terminology, a baptismal font

was dened as baptisterium, fons, alveum, balneum, concha, labrum,

lavacrum, lavatorium, piscina, tinctorium, dolium baptisandi.

this study, it will be dened as a baptismal font inspired

by a bestiary.

The rst testimony of the presence, form, and function

of the three above-mentioned baptismal fonts in the interi-

or of St. Nicholas Parish Church is a description of mon-

uments of the Grudziądz Poviat, which was developed by

Johannes Heise and published in 1894. The description

of the parish church mentioned the old granite octagonal

baptismal font decorated with ancient gures of dragons

and simple ornamentation embedded on a folded foot

(Fig. 2, I) as well as two granite baptismal fonts, i.e. a hex-

agonal one with a canopy tightened with belts of boards

(Fig. 2, II)

and the second one – nineeld with a smooth

surface (Fig. 2, III)

[4, pp. 498, 499]. The oldest photo-

At present, the baptismal font/holy water font is situated in the

church porch at the southern side entrance; it was carved in the coarse-

grained pink and black granite. J. Kuczyńska included it in a numerous

group of granite baptismal fonts in Eastern Pomerania (36 objects). They

had bowls decorated with boards, the wider of which surrounded the

bowl at its upper edge. Six narrower boards spread to its base. The bowls

were embedded on granite feet in the shape of a cylindrical stepped cone.

The construction of these works, which were transported by waterways,

the author hypothetically connects with the workshop opened in Malbork

in the 1

half of the 14

century [5, pp. 29, 30]. Today, the baptismal font

in Grudziądz Parish Church is embedded on a modern cement foot.

At present, the baptismal font/holy water font is situated in the

south-western part of the porch; it is not – as Heise claimed – made of

coarse-grained gravel conglomerate with iron binder. The surface of

the bowl is divided into nine smooth elds separated by the edge lines.

Probably after 1945 the bowl was re-embedded on an iron cylinder (now

heavily corroded) which was covered with cement and along with it rests

on a cylindrical foot narrower than its granite circumference and with

one stepped seto on the upper edge. Thanks to this treatment, the form

of the composition resembles the shape of a chalice. The coarse-grained

structure and the granite colour of the cylindrical foot are identical to the

material of which the above-mentioned baptismal font/holy water font

were made. It is situated in the southern church porch, which makes it

possible to assume that originally they both might have formed the whole.

DOI: 10.37190/arc230301

Published in open access. CC BY NC ND license

4 Janusz Maciej Nowiński

graph of the baptismal font with animal/beast gures was

also reproduced in this study (Fig. 3).

Today, the turbulent history of St. Nicholas Parish

Church in Grudziądz gives no explanation as regards the

origin of three stone baptismal fonts in the parish church.

They present very dierent forms – from a very simple

one devoid of any decoration (baptismal font III) to the

one inspired by a bestiary with rich iconography and or-

naments (baptismal font I). We cannot rule out the circum-

stances – known from other churches – in which formal-

ly and ornamentally poorer equipment was replaced by

works of a more decorative form. In this case, the earlier

baptismal font, which gave way to the new one, usually

became a holy water font at the entrance to the church [6,

pp. 1317, 1318]. This process – in the case of the rich city

of Grudziądz – might have been inspired by the aspira-

tions for the representativeness and splendour of its inhab-

itants. The city parish church and its equipment performed

a signicant role here.

Baptismal font inspired by a bestiary

The main subject of this study is the preserved bowl

of the stone baptismal font in Grudziądz Parish Church

(Fig. 2, I) with a rich relief zoomorphic and ornamental

decoration. The zoomorphic decoration is modelled on

medieval bestiaries. As mentioned above, its bowl has

been preserved from the original composition of the bap-

tismal font. The reproduced photography in 1894 (Fig. 3)

documents the embedding of the bowl on the base with

Fig. 1. Ground plan of

the parish church of St. Nicholas

in Grudziądz with the marked

locations of three preserved

baptismal fonts

(elaborated by F. Hackemer)

Il. 1. Rzut przyziemia kościoła

farnego św. Mikołaja

w Grudziądzu z zaznaczonymi

miejscami lokalizacji trzech

zachowanych chrzcielnic

(oprac. F. Hackemer)

Fig. 2. Composition of three

baptismal fonts from the parish

church in Grudziądz, from above

and from the side

(photo and elaborated by

F. Hackemer)

Il. 2. Zestawienie trzech

chrzcielnic z kościoła farnego

w Grudziądzu w ujęciu z góry

i z boku

(fot. i oprac. F. Hackemer)

 LateRomanesquebaptismalfontfromSt.NicholasChurchinGrudziądz–importfromGotland 5

wavy forms which indicate their modern provenance. At

present, the bowl is embedded on a modern polygonal

base which is composed of granite slabs and segments;

the wholeness is formed by a chalice layout with a bowl,

shaft and foot (Fig. 4).

In his study, Johannes Heise described the baptismal

font inspired by a bestiary as old and did not suggest the

time of its construction [4, p. 498]. In 1939, Karl Heinz

Clasen claimed that the baptismal font from Grudziądz

was an import from Gotland or was made in the place

where it stands by a Gotland stonemason and might have

been built in the 3

quarter of the 14

century by present-

ing a medieval sculpture from the State of the Teutonic

Order [7, pp. 267–270]. In the study on medieval stone

baptismal fonts in Poland, Jadwiga Kuczyńska accepted

the dating of Clasen for the baptismal font in Grudziądz.

However, she did not exclude its creation in around the

mid-14

century. She also agreed that the baptismal font

was completed in the church and ruled out its import from

Gotland [5, p. 27]. Following Clasen, Jerzy Z. Łoziński

presented Gotland’s origin of the baptismal font and its

creation in the 3

quarter of the 14

century in the cata-

logue study of Pomeranian monuments [8, p. 407].

The octagonal bowl with a diameter of 87 cm and

a height of 35 cm has a attened form. Each of the eight

elds, similar to the spherical triangle, is lled with anal-

ogously composed decoration realized in a shallow relief.

In spite of diculties resulting from the processing of

hard material, the sculptor tried to carefully develop the

shapes of each of the gural and ornamental elements, ad-

ditionally enriching the bodies of animal beasts with a rich

Fig. 3. Baptismal font from the parish church in Grudziądz,

photograph reproduced in 1894

(source: [4, Table 3])

Il. 3. Chrzcielnica z kościoła farnego w Grudziądzu,

fotografia reprodukowana w 1894 r.

(źródło: [4, tab. 3])

Fig. 5. One of the beasts decorating the baptismal bowl

(photo by J. Nowiński)

Il. 5. Jedna z bestii dekorujących czaszę chrzcielnicy (fot. J. Nowiński)

Fig. 4. The baptismal font from the parish church in Grudziądz

mounted on a modern granite base

(photo by J. Nowiński)

Il. 4. Czasza chrzcielnicy z kościoła farnego w Grudziądzu

osadzona na współczesnej granitowej podstawie

(fot. J. Nowiński)

drawing of linear grooves which gave them decorativeness

and elegance values (Fig. 5). The artist when sculpting the

gures of beasts, emphasized their large heads with open

mouths embedded on slender necks, paws with claws and

tails which he deprived of a zoomorphic character giving

them oral forms that resembled fancifully entwined ten-

drils; tails dier in the shape and expression of plant forms

6 Janusz Maciej Nowiński

(Fig. 6). Clear ornamentation styling of the beast gures

makes it dicult to determine their biological species. Lin-

ear grooves on their bodies and necks suggest shortness of

the coat, which along with the predatory character of paws

and mouths allows us to suppose that the beasts on the bowl

can be images of a leopard, tiger, or puma, or – which seems

to be the most convincing – they are only a presentation of

predatory animals. The beasts in seven elds are shown by

the right prole. A highly raised front paw and the arrange-

ment of rear paws indicate their movement in one direction,

i.e. towards the eld from which the procession of animal

beasts begins and ends. Thus, it is the rst and central place

of the composition (Fig. 7). It is lled with the image of

a lion with a raised front paw shown by the left prole, i.e.

heraldically turned to the right; a large head and neck are

covered with a mane with twisted locks at the ends. The

lion’s tail is nished with a decorative tassel of a lilac form.

The gures of animals – beasts are enclosed by an orna-

mental frame with a quasi-architectonic form which creates

a separate zone in the composition of the work in relation to

the group of animals – beasts (Fig. 5, 7). The edges of each

of the eight elds of the bowl are decorated with a board

with a row of square pyramidal knobs in the base, which are

cut to resemble routs. On the boards, like on thin supports,

there is a frieze which goes through all the elds of the bowl

and which also decorates the row of routs. Above the heads

of beasts, the frieze rises with a section arch, which creates

a form resembling an arcade along with vertical boards.

Above the curvature of the frieze, ve eighteld small ro-

settes are carved in each of the elds. On the extension of

vertical boards, upper edges of each of the elds of the bowl

are decorated with a human head with long wavy hair, em-

bedded in a column whose cylindrical base rests on the cor-

ner section of the frieze (the faces of heads are today strongly

blurred)

. Long, characteristically sculpted and symmetrical-

Destruction of anatomical details of faces might have resulted

from rubbing them with a wooden (?) edge of the already non-existing

Fig. 6. Combination of representations of the beast on the baptismal bowl (photo and elaborated by F. Hackemer)

Il. 6. Zestawienie przedstawień bestii na czaszy chrzcielnicy (fot. i oprac. F. Hackemer)

Fig. 7. The first and central field of the bowl composition,

from which the procession of walking beasts begins

and towards which it heads (photo by E. Łużyniecka)

Il. 7. Pierwsze i centralne pole kompozycji czaszy, od którego

rozpoczyna się i ku któremu zmierza orszak kroczących bestii

(fot. E. Łużyniecka)

 LateRomanesquebaptismalfontfromSt.NicholasChurchinGrudziądz–importfromGotland 7

ly arranged hair of the gures go down along the columns to

go into the form of an ornament forming a wave arch above

small rosettes and a frieze at the height of their bases (Fig. 7).

The inside of the bowl is hollowed out and duplicates

its octagonal shape. The interior for baptismal water is

lled with copper (?) limewashed massive bowl which is

adapted to the shape and size of the hollow (Fig. 2, I). In

accordance with the liturgical regulations in force since

the 13

century [1, pp. 121–123], the baptismal font bowl

had a lid with a lock which was not preserved. On the

upper edge of the bowl there are visible holes which once

anchored its closure.

The oldest testimonies of the presence of a baptismal

font in the interior of Grudziądz parish church include

information in the protocols of episcopal visitation in the

century. In 1647, Grudziądz parish church was vis-

ited by Bishop of Chełmno Andrzej Leszczyński. In the

post-visitation report it was written that the church had

a stone baptismal font with a vessel [inside] cast in bronze

[9, p. 41]

. Another record is in the report of the visitation

of St. Nicholas Parish Church, which was conducted by

canon Jan Ludwik Strzesz on Bishop Chełmiński Andrzej

Olszowski’s recommendation in 1667. Describing the in-

terior and equipment of the parish church, the canon wrote

that opposite Three Kings’ Altar which was situated a little

further from the southern entrance [to the church] at the

pillar of the nave, in the back part of the church there was

a baptismal font which – as they report – from Protestant

times

was secured with an enclosure made of wooden bars

and locked with a padlock. Inside the baptismal font there

was a copper vessel (vas cupreum fusile) [and the water in

it] transparent and clean

. There was no piscina at the bap-

tismal font

. The described location of the baptismal font

in the western part of the church near the back entrance (ad

partem posticam templi) corresponds to the centuries-old

tradition of the Western Church, which was continued in

the period after the Council of Trent. The practice in the

times after the Council of Trent, which was also used by

Protestants, was additional protection of access to the bap-

tismal font in the form of the closed fence [1, pp. 128–132].

In the protocol, the inspector mentioned liturgical aspects

and functional places of the baptism celebration, but he did

not describe the baptismal font’s decoration. However, like

today, the fact that it had a copper vessel inside

(intus vas

baptismal font cover; on the edges there are only holes after the structure

anchoring the lid on the baptismal font.

Fons baptismalis lapideus ahenum habet ex aere fusum [9, p. 41].

Protestants occupied the parish church in Grudziądz in the years

1572–1598.

Sequitur australis porta cum vestibulo adstructo […]. Altare Tri-

um Regum paulo ulterius ad columnam sculpture gracilis […]. Ex cuius

oppositio ad partem posticam templi baptisterium collocatum est, ut

feretur tempore possessionis lutheranicae, cancellis cratibusque ligneis

optime saeptum et serata munitum, cui tamen piscina deest. Intus vas

cupreum fusile, fons pellucidus et mundus [10, p. 293].

In this case, the term piscina refers to a small well under the oor-

ing of the church, into which the baptism water used was poured, previous

year’s holy oils as well as water used for washing altar cloths [11, p. 991].

This vessel is cited once again in part of the protocol, where met-

al equipment belonging to the parish church was listed and here it was

dened as ahenum in fonte [10, p. 299].

cupreum fusile) can be considered a premise which makes

it possible to associate the baptismal font mentioned in the

protocol with the analysed monument – a baptismal font

inspired by a bestiary.

Artistic provenance

of the baptismal font decoration

Kuczyńska, when discussing medieval stone baptismal

fonts in Poland, drew attention to the relatively numerous

works of Gotland provenance. These baptismal fonts came

to the Baltic countries from Gotland [5, pp. 9, 10, 25–27].

They had bowls which were decorated in two ways, i.e.

the rst type presented bowls with arcaded architecture

carved on their surfaces, which symbolized the casing of

the source of water of life [12, pp. 50, 51]. The second type

had bowls which were decorated with the motif of fantastic

animals. Both types of baptismal fonts came to the areas

of Western and Eastern Pomerania. Baptismal fonts with

multi-side bowls, which were decorated with the motif of

fantastic animals/beasts have been preserved in our lands

in seven examples

. Although they are dated at the mid-

century, they formally belong to the late Roman style;

the discussed baptismal font from Grudziądz is among

them [5, pp. 25, 26]. Four baptismal fonts have the biggest

number of common features, although each of them has

the original composition of the bowl decoration. They are

in Chełmno (parish church, made in Gotland limestone),

from Lubiana (at present at the National Museum in Szc-

zecin, made in Gotland limestone), in the church in Wila-

mów (Sieradz Land) and in the parish church in Grudziądz

(Fig. 8). The bowls of these baptismal fonts are attened

and their supports have not been preserved or have been

transformed. The gures of animals, which are presented in

a shallow relief, have a similar prole layout, hieratic poses

without expressions, walking movement, and “plant tails”.

Animals/beasts are surrounded by a quasi-architectonic/

arcaded frame which in three cases is made from boards

lled with routs (Chełmno, Wilamów, Grudziądz). Among

these four formally related baptismal fonts, the bowl from

Grudziądz is undoubtedly compositionally the richest and

at the highest level in terms of art.

The preserved late Romanesque baptismal fonts, which

are decorated with motives from bestiaries, have dierent

workshop implementation, although they are similar in

terms of iconography and ornamentation. Therefore, they

were made or came from the environment in which artists

used similar iconographic and formal models in their own

way. Kuczyńska [5, p. 27] associated them with a complex

of Gotland baptismal fonts which were dened as Fröjel

Group from around the mid-14

century by Scandinavian

researchers [13, pp. 88–90]. The name of the group origi-

nates from the decoration of the baptismal font bowl from

the 1

half of the 14

century and is situated in the church

These are baptismal fonts preserved in Wilamów [14, pp. 36, 37, 62],

Lubiana (at present, at the National Museum in Szczecin) [15, pp. 32, 33],

Chełmno, Grudziądz, Elbląg (up to 1945) [16, pp. 36, 37, 62], Górsk and

a fragment of the baptismal font bowl in St. James’ Church in Toruń [17].

8 Janusz Maciej Nowiński

in Fröjel on the west coast of Gotland (Fig. 9)

. Baptis-

mal fonts from this group were produced in Gotland in the

century and were broadly exported not only to, inter

alia, churches in southern Sweden, provinces Skåne (Väs-

tra Karaby), Småland, Östergotländ, Västergötland (Fals-

terbo, Västra, Malmö), but also to Denmark (

Magleby,

Uggerslev, Traeden), SchleswikHolstein, Mecklenburg,

as well as to Western and Eastern Pomerania. The dis-

tinctive features include an eighteld composition of the

body; the presence of fantastic animals/beasts shown in

proles and without any features of aggression; the g-

ures of animals are usually enclosed by arcades supported

by columns or boards with routs and placed in pairs with

their heads turned to each other; the edges of the bowl

elds are always accented, e.g. by rout lines and/or sym-

bolic motifs (a cross, the Tree of Life, gures of people or

human heads); striving for decorativeness and symmetry

of the composition.

The repertoire of gural and ornamental forms was taken

from the oldest artistic tradition which shaped the stylistics

and iconography of Gotland baptismal fonts decorations by

workshops within the framework of Fröjel Group. The be-

ginnings of this tradition are associated with the so-called

Master Byzantios [18, p. 221]. He was the artist, probably

of Lombard origin, who appeared in Scandinavia within the

framework of the organisation of Italian stonemasons and

sculptors working on the construction of the cathedral in

Lund. In the 2

half of the 12

century Master Byzantios

nally settled in Gotland and founded a workshop which

specialised in the production of baptismal fonts whose char-

acteristic form and decoration created the bases for Gotland

works in the 13

and 14

centuries [19, pp. 249–253]. It

was him who segmented the octagonal shape of the bowl by

means of the harmonious and symmetrical rhythm of the ar-

cades based on low supports; he enriched the elds between

arcades in an ornamental or gurative way; apart from bib-

lical scenes, in the elds of arcades he presented a fantastic

bestiary made in a at relief; in a part of the baptismal font

support he placed four heads, i.e. of man, ram, lion, and pan-

ther. The variety of presented animals, including exotic ones

(camel, elephant) and fantastic, sometimes of ancient origin

(centaur, harpy, grin), makes it possible to claim that Byz-

antios and his workshop used the illustrated tractate entitled

Physiologus [20, pp. 26–35, 42–46, 51–54], [21] as well as

other bestiaries and initiated inspiration with these works

in Gotland workshops [19, p. 249]. Byzantios’ baptismal

font from the church in Öja in Gotland (at present, Statens

Historiska Museum Stockholm) is a good example of this

kind of decoration. Here, we can also mention the works

of Byzantios’ followers from the so-called Bestiarius Group

from the 3

and 4

quarters of the 12

century (Fig. 10)

[12, pp. 17–19]

. On baptismal fonts, Byzantios as well

Photographic documentation along with factual information about

Swedish baptismal fonts from Fröjel Group is presented by portal

KRINGLA.NU which is run by the Council of the Swedish National Her-

itage, https://kringla.nu/kringla/sok?text=Fr%C3%B6jelgruppen&refer-

ens=shm/art/910504F1 [accessed: 5.07.2023].

Photographic documentation along with factual information on

baptismal fonts from Bestiary Group is presented by KRINGLA.NU

Fig. 8. Baptismal fonts associated with Fröjel Group

with a bowl decorated with fantastic animals/beasts.

A. Parish church in Chełmno (photo by R. Niedźwiedzki),

B. Church in Lubiana,

currently in the National Museum in Szczecin

(photo by G. Solecki),

C. Parish church in Wilamów (photo by City Hall in Uniejów),

D. Parish church in Grudziądz (photo by E. Łużyniecka)

Il. 8. Chrzcielnice łączone z Grupą Fröjel o czaszy dekorowanej

fantastycznymi zwierzętami/bestiami.

A. Kościół farny w Chełmnie (fot. R. Niedźwiedzki),

B. Kościół w Lubianie, obecnie w Muzeum Narodowym w Szczecinie

(fot. G. Solecki),

C. Kościół parafialny w Wilamowie (fot. Urząd Miasta w Uniejowie),

D. Kościół farny w Grudziądzu (fot. E. Łużyniecka)

 LateRomanesquebaptismalfontfromSt.NicholasChurchinGrudziądz–importfromGotland 9

Fig. 9. Bowls of Scandinavian baptismal fonts from Fröjel Group:

A. Fröjel, parish church (photo by S. Simonsson),

B. Statens Historiska Museum Stockholm (photo by L. Karlsson),

C. Västra Karaby (currently Statens Historiska Museum Stockholm)

(photo by L. Karlsson),

D. Magleby, parish church (photo by G. Pedersen)

Il. 9. Czasze skandynawskich chrzcielnic z Grupy Fröjel:

A. Fröjel, kościół parafialny (fot. S. Simonsson),

B. Statens Historiska Museum Stockholm (fot. L. Karlsson),

C. Västra Karaby (obecnie Statens Historiska Museum Stockholm)

(fot. L. Karlsson),

D. Magleby, kościół parafialny (fot. G. Pedersen)

as his followers presented animals devoid of wildness or

aggression by means of modifying zoomorphic details,

i.e. a tail and a tongue which were replaced by winding

plant stems. These authors implemented their works main-

ly in Gotland sandstone and sometimes also in limestone.

The author of the baptismal font from the parish church

in Grudziądz – as evidenced by his work – was perfectly

familiar with the repertoire of ornamental forms and the

iconographic tradition functioning in the workshops of Frö-

jel Group. By confronting the baptismal bowl from Gru-

dziądz with the works associated with this group in Scandi-

navia, it is necessary to point to the higher artistic level of

the sculptor who made it. He is a creator with a shaped style.

He is characterized by greater symmetry of the composition

and the precision of the carved matter development as well

as clear striving for decorativeness of forms (routs, linear

grooves on animal bodies, fancy shapes of “plant-like

tails”, ornamental character of hair of the heads presented

on edges). In St. Nicholas Parish Church in Grudziądz there

is a preserved characteristic work of this author, in which

he used various compositional and iconographic solutions

found in the decoration of baptismal fonts connected with

Fröjel Group. These include development of arcades’ dec-

orations and their supports with the use of routs (Fig. 9B,

C, D); prole images of fanciful animals presented in a at

relief and devoid of features of aggression (Fig. 9A–D);

the application of sequins/small rosettes above arcades

(Fig. 9B, C, D); human heads/gures on the edges of elds

of the baptismal font in the space between the arcades

(Figs. 7, 11); a very characteristic method of developing

long wavy hair on the heads from the upper edges of the

baptismal font (Figs. 7, 11A, D). The Gotland artistic for-

mation of the author of the baptismal font from Grudziądz

is beyond any doubts. However, it is necessary to draw at-

tention to the important innovation which appeared in his

work. In the tradition of Gotland baptismal fonts with bowls

decorated with arcades, the scenes presented in arcades

(e.g. biblical) were not interrelated. The gures of animals/

beasts were presented in a similar way, i.e. without any mu-

tual relationship (Fig. 10). The beasts decorating baptismal

fonts from Fröjel Group are usually depicted in pairs facing

each other at the edges of the bowl (Figs. 8, 9). However,

in the composition of the baptismal font in Grudziądz, all

animals/beasts are shown with the right prole and walk in

one direction, i.e. to the lion heraldically shown with the

left prole (Figs. 4–7). In this baptismal font there is a clear

two-zone symmetrical layout of the composition of the

whole which is divided into an animal procession zone and

the arcaded frieze zone crowning the upper part of the bowl.

The issue which in the current discussion on the history

of the baptismal font did not give a denitive explanation,

was the answer to the question whether the baptismal font

from Grudziądz is an import from Gotland or Scandina-

via or it was made where it is now by a Gotland sculp-

tor. Kuczyńska – as already mentioned – was in favour

portal run by the Swedish National Heritage Council, https://kringla.nu/

kringla/sok?text=bestiarius+dopfunt&referens=shm/art/910701F1&si-

da=1 [accessed: 7.06.2023].

10 Janusz Maciej Nowiński

of the second solution arguing that the hard stone from

which it was made was not imported from Gotland [5,

p. 27]. Piotr Birecki recently presented the opposite and

intriguing opinion on the provenance of the baptismal font

claiming that […] it was not made in the local stonema-

son’s workshop, but was brought, as it is widely accepted,

byknightswhotookpartintheghtsagainstpiratesin

Gotland in 1398 [22, p. 122]. Unfortunately, the author

does not reveal the source of this information and a gen-

eral character of the statement “as it is widely accepted”

does not constitute an argument in the discussion on the

provenance of the monument

When arguing with the opinion of Kuczyńska, it should

be indicated that in fact Gotland sandstone – negrained

and easy to process stonework – was a material which was

In my opinion, claims that the baptismal font was brought by

knights and the related date – 1398 – constitute a modern creation which

tries to connect the Grudziądz baptismal font with the expedition of the

Teutonic Order to Gotland under the command of Konrad von Jungin-

gen in 1398 against the Victual Brothers (Fratres Vitalienses) – common

pirates looting ships on the Baltic Sea.

usually used by stonemasons and sculptors. It was also the

most common stone exported in completed products and

as a building/sculptural material from Gotland exported

to almost the entire area of the Baltic Sea. However, it is

known that this was not the only stone employed by the

Scandinavian and Gotland sculptors who also took ad-

vantage of the rich diversity of stones in the territories of

today’s Sweden – one of the richest in stone deposits ar-

eas in Europe. Publications by Klaus-Dieter Meyer, a ge-

ologist and petrographer, on the provenance of baptismal

fonts’ rocks in the territory of northern Germany, and in

particular the results of his recent research on the matter

of Scandinavian stone baptismal fonts from this area and

from Sweden [23], showed that baptismal fonts made of

Scandinavian stones might have been made of dierent

types of limestone, various types of sandstone, granite,

gneiss, soapstone, amphibolite. The quoted author by re-

calling representative examples indicated that baptismal

fonts which were made in similar stone also showed simi-

lar stylistic features specied by the hardness and structure

of the stone [23, pp. 80, 94]. Apart from Gotland sand-

stones, the matter for baptismal fonts was also hard quartz-

Fig. 10. Details of baptismal fonts decorated with motifs of fantastic animals framed by arcades from the Bestiarius Group,

–4

quarter of the 12

century: A. Filsby (Småland) (photo by L. Karlsson, Statens Historiska Museum Stockholm),

B. Näveljö (Småland) (photo by L. Karlsson, Statens Historiska Museum Stockholm),

C. Tjureda (Småland) (photo by L. Karlsson, Statens Historiska Museum Stockholm),

D. Svanshals (Östergotland, currently Statens Historiska Museum Stockholm) (photo by L. Karlsson, Statens Historiska Museum Stockholm)

Il. 10. Detale czaszy chrzcielnic dekorowanych motywem fantastycznych zwierząt ujętych arkadami z Grupy Bestiarius, 3.–4. ćwierć XII w.:

A. Filsby (Småland) (fot. L. Karlsson, Statens Historiska Museum Stockholm),

B. Näveljö (Småland) (fot. L. Karlsson, Statens Historiska Museum Stockholm),

C. Tjureda (Småland) (fot. L. Karlsson, Statens Historiska Museum Stockholm),

D. Svanshals (Östergotland, obecnie Statens Historiska Museum Stockholm) (fot. L. Karlsson, Statens Historiska Museum Stockholm)

 LateRomanesquebaptismalfontfromSt.NicholasChurchinGrudziądz–importfromGotland 11

ite sandstones found in Sweden, inter alia, in the vicinity

of Gävle and Höör [23, pp. 84, 95]. In the summary of his

research, Klaus-Dieter Meyer points out that apart from

recognized environments and materials for the production

of Scandinavian baptismal fonts, which we encounter in

a wide area of northern Europe, baptismal fonts made of

local rocks and in small quantities were always produced

and exported. And although they are not researched more

thoroughly as regards the export of Scandinavian baptis-

mal fonts, they should also be taken into consideration [23,

p. 94]. According to K.-D. Meyer’s conclusions, the stone

hardness cannot constitute a circumstance which excludes

the import of a ready work from Scandinavia, including

Gotland. In the case of the baptismal font from the parish

church in Grudziądz, formal as well as compositional and

iconographic analogies connecting its author with the sty-

listics of baptismal fonts from Fröjel Group – formed from

the 1

half of the 14

century (Fröjel) up to the end of this

century – support the creation of the baptismal font in the

territory of Scandinavia in the circle of the inuence of

Gotland models.

A closer premise for the dating of the Grudziądz work

is the similarity of ornamental elements (routs on arcades,

small rosettes/sequins on the crowning frieze) and a very

characteristic way of presenting and developing long wavy

hair of the gures shown on the edges of the bowl with

analogous elements of the baptismal font decoration pre-

served in the church in Västra Karaby in Scania (lime-

stone, Fröjel Group; Fig. 9C). The female gure depicted

on one of the edges of the bowl has a head decorated with

a cruseler in the form of an inverted letter U – a character-

istic element of women’s fashion, which was popular since

the mid-14

century. This cruseler also adorns the head

of a woman on one of the edges of the baptismal font in

Magleby in Denmark (limestone, Fröjel Group; Fig. 9D).

Isis Sturtewagen’s studies of the history, form, and popu-

larity of a cruseler in the Netherlands as well as in north-

ern and central Europe showed that in the area of southern

Sweden, including Scania, a cruseler in the above-men-

tioned form was popular in the period from around 1350

to 1400 [24, pp. 21, 83]. The decoration of the baptismal

font from Västra Karaby must have been accomplished af-

ter 1350. A close similarity of forms of the baptismal font

from Grudziądz with this work makes it possible to put

forward a hypothesis regarding a similar time to its cre-

ation, i.e. after 1350. In this situation, Karl H. Clasen’s

suggestion, which was also repeated by Łoziński, that the

Grudziądz baptismal font might have been created in the

quarter of the 14

century, is becoming quite probable.

The issue of the provenance of the Grudziądz work

which was discussed for years was denitely solved by

the petrographic expertise of a baptismal stone sample

It was commissioned to Wojciech Bartz PhD during the

writing of this article. He is an assistant professor at the

Department of Experimental Petrology of the Institute of

Geological Sciences of the University of Wrocław. Pe-

trographic studies showed that […] a sample of the rock

taken from the baptismal font in St. Nicholas Church in

Grudziądz represents sedimentary and carbonate rocks

–limestone.Itconsistspracticallyonlyofrhombohedral

carbonate crystals developed in various forms. Some of

the carbonates are sparite crystals and the subordinate

part are elements of a pelite character (micrite). […]

A stone sample from the inside of the baptismal font bowl on

its edge, with the consent of the parish priest, canon Dariusz Kunicki,

was taken by Professor Ewa Łużyniecka and the author of this article

in April 2023.

Fig. 11. A characteristic motif of heads/human figures/Tree of Life on the edges of the baptismal font fields in the space between the arcades:

A. Falsterbo (photo by L. Karlsson, Statens Historiska Museum Stockholm), B. Magleby (photo by E.G. Antoñana),

C. excerpt from baptismal font (photo by L. Karlsson, Statens Historiska Museum Stockholm), D. Grudziądz (photo by J. Nowiński)

Il. 11. Charakterystyczny motyw głów/ postaci ludzkich/ Drzewa Życia na krawędziach pól chrzcielnicy w przestrzeni między arkadami:

A. Falsterbo (fot. L. Karlsson, Statens Historiska Museum Stockholm),

B. Magleby (fot. E.G. Antoñana),

C. fragment chrzcielnicy (fot. L. Karlsson, Statens Historiska Museum Stockholm), D. Grudziądz (fot. J. Nowiński)

BA C D

12 Janusz Maciej Nowiński

A grey colour of the rock and a carbonate character in

combination with the location of the object from which

the sample was taken may suggest the origin of the rock

raw material in which the baptismal font from Gotland

Island was made. Silurian limestone found here is very

often found in the architectural details of Northern Po-

land. However, typical limestone varieties have a biogenic

character and abound in numerous carbonate bioclasts.

The so-called limestone from Hoburgen, which is rich in

sparite cement, is similar to the sample in terms of petro-

graphic features [25, p. 1]. Hoburgen limestone deposits

are located at the southern end of Gotland and form a cli

coast of this part of the island.

Summing up the discussion on the authorship and or-

igin of the baptismal font from St. Nicholas’ Church in

Grudziądz, it is possible to indicate not only the Gotland

models which its author used, but also the Gotland prov-

enance of the stone in which it was carved – deposits of

limestone Hoburgen. Therefore, this work should be treat-

ed as an import from Gotland.

Iconography and ideological content

of the baptismal font decoration

The shape and decoration of baptismal fonts in the

Middle Ages resulted from the fact that they stored bap-

tismal water solemnly consecrated once a year (on Holy

Saturday) – the only and irreplaceable matter of the sac-

rament of baptism, fundamentally dierent from the so

called holy water, commonly used in liturgical ceremonies

and in the devotional practices of the faithful. An import-

ant element of the ceremony of consecration of baptismal

water was its exorcism, through which – freed from all

devilish power – it became a holy source of cleansing

and regenerative water. Those washed in it during bap-

tism were fully puried from sins and freed from evil. The

consecration of baptismal water made it a holy and sancti-

fying thing, a carrier of divine power, fruitful in salvation

[1, pp. 107–111].

The presence of consecrated baptismal water in the

baptismal font resulted in its shape (originally cylindrical)

being dierentiated, formally separating a bowl with water

from the base. According to the early Christian tradition

continued by the Roman Church, the shape of the bowl in

the late Middle Ages was usually octagonal, symbolizing

rebirth to a new life through baptism and the promise of

resurrection [1, p. 111, especially note 24]. The symbolic

shape of the bowl was accompanied by its ornamentation,

which could emphasize various contents related to the es-

sence of the sacrament: the holiness and life-giving nature

of baptism, the victorious power over evil, the transforma-

tion of the baptized, the hope of salvation through Christ

and with Christ, the reality of paradise. The artistic and

iconographic distinction of the bowls of baptismal fonts

emphasized the presence of baptismal water in them, pro-

viding the faithful with visual proof of the holy power and

eectiveness of the sacrament.

The above-mentioned ideological content related to the

form and decoration of medieval baptismal fonts was fully

realized in the case of the baptismal font from the parish

church of St. Nicholas in Grudziądz

. In order to illus-

trate the theological message (which was probably pre-

sented to him by the person who commissioned the work

– this will be discussed later), the creator of the baptismal

font – in accordance with the tradition long present in his

artistic environment (Master Byzantios) – used symbolic

representations of animals, whose iconography and dra-

ma of the action with their participation were taken from

the already mentioned medieval bestiary – the Physiolo-

gus [21]. As already emphasized, the composition of the

bowl decoration has its center, which is a eld with the

representation of a lion (Fig. 7). The treatise Physiologus

also begins with a description of the lion, which considers

it the king of animals, symbolically referring it to Christ.

The Physiologus describes three types of lions, and the

rst type is illustrated on the baptismal font: a carved lion

stands calmly, has a curly mane, a noticeably large head

and an accentuated tail

The remaining seven animals, which have toothed

mouths and paws with claws, short hair and maneless

necks, are dicult to identify zoologically due to their or-

namental styling. Their representations on the baptismal

font in Grudziądz represent the images of beasts described

in the Physiologus

. These beasts, just like in the bestiary

works by Master Byzantios and his followers and in Frö-

jel Group, are devoid of savagery and aggression

. Their

symbolic representation and importance in the baptismal

font decoration program is evidenced by the fact that the

artist deprived them of animal tails, replacing them with

oral forms – fancifully curled plant tendrils (Figs. 5, 6).

Describing the dragon, considered a symbol of Satan in

the Middle Ages, the Physiologus states that dragon ven-

om is not found in the teeth, but in the tail [21, p. 63]. As

mentioned above, washing with exorcised baptismal water

during baptism also resulted in exorcism – freedom from

evil and its power. In this case, depriving the beasts of their

tails – a symbol of devilish power – and replacing them

with lush plant tendrils illustrates the eect of the exor-

cism performed in baptism

. Receiving the sacrament had

In 2016, an article by Marek Szajerka was published on the sym-

bolism of the Grudziądz baptismal font. It is dicult to argue with this

text, the author of which, setting out to identify the symbols of the bowl

decoration, does so on the basis of incorrect identication of artistic

forms and iconography, and the interpretation is based on subjective as-

sociations, without references to the artistic, iconographic and symbolic

tradition [26].

There are three types of lions, some are small, curly-maned and

calm, others have an elongated body, and still others have a straight

and sharp mane. Their feelings are expressed in the head and tail, their

courage is in the chest, and their strength is in the head [21, p. 38].

The name of beast rightly belongs to lions, leopards, foxes, ti-

gers, wolves, monkeys, bears and others that use both mouths and claws,

with the exception of snakes. They are called beasts because of the power

thatmakesthemerce [21, p. 38].

According to Kuczyńska, beasts […] devoid of the expression of

destructive power, […]theirstiandposedguresonbaptismalfonts

from the 14

century seem to have primarily a decorative role [5, p. 28].

This way of illustrating evil tamed by holy action occurs, among

others, in the decorations of Romanesque portals – masks with plant

tendrils coming out of the mouth (e.g. Czerwińsk around 1140, Wrocław

portal from Ołbin, 1230s) and in the programs of monastic and canoni-

cal stalls, where dragons acting as canopy partitions and supports, have

 LateRomanesquebaptismalfontfromSt.NicholasChurchinGrudziądz–importfromGotland 13

[1] Nowiński J., Ewolucja formy chrzcielnicy i zabezpieczenie miejsca

celebracji sakramentu chrztu efektem rosnącego znaczenia wody

chrzcielnej i jej wykradania do praktyk magicznych, [in:] A.M. Wyr-

wa, J. Górecki (red.), Teologiailiturgiachrztuodstarożytnościchrze-

ścijańskiejdoczasównowożytnych, PTPN, Poznań 2015, 107–136.

[2] Architektura gotycka w Polsce, T. Mroczko, M. Arszyński (red.),

t. 2: Katalog zabytków, A. Włodarek (red.), Instytut Sztuki PAN,

Warszawa 1995.

[3] Soćko A., Układyemporowewarchitekturzepaństwakrzyżackiego,

PWN, Warszawa 2005.

[4]

Die Bau- und Kunstdenkmäler des Kreises Graudenz, J. Heise (Bearb.),

A.W. Kafemann, Danzig 1894.

[5] Kuczyńska J., Średniowieczne chrzcielnice kamienne w Polsce,

“Rocznik Historii Sztuki” 1984, Vol. 14, 5–79.

[6]

Kuczyńska J., Kropielnica, [in:] Encyklopedia Katolicka, A. Szostek et

al.

(red.), t. 9, Towarzystwo Naukowe KUL, Lublin 2002, 1317–1318.

References

sanctifying power, baptism conferred divine grace result-

ing in salvation, announced participation in the happiness

of paradise and enjoying the fruits of the paradise Tree of

Life (arbor vitae). The symbolism of the Tree of Life was

expressed by plant motifs on baptismal fonts [1, pp. 111,

112], [27, pp. 57–64]. The beasts with plant tails on the

bowl of the baptismal font in Grudziądz symbolically il-

lustrate the newly baptized who are thus freed from the

power of Satan and transformed so that they march in a har-

monious line towards Christ, symbolically shown as a li-

on-king. The hieratic nature of the procession of animals/

beasts gives the whole thing a solemn, ceremonial expres-

sion. The text of the Physiologus, describing the panther

(which he also perceives as a symbol of Christ), points in

a moralizing commentary to the need to follow Christ and

the aroma of His teaching, since He will lead those who

follow Him to salvation: We should as soon as possible

[…] that is, as souls transformed by baptism [sic!], follow

in the footsteps of the oils of the commandments of Christ,

in order to move from earthly things to heavenly ones, so

that the King may bring us into his palace, that is, into his

city of Jerusalem and to the mount of all saints [21, p. 62].

This eschatological perspective, presented in the last

sentence of the Physiologus moralistic commentary, is the

fullment of the hope of salvation, which begins at the

baptismal font in a sacramental ceremony. At the baptis-

mal font in Grudziądz, a lion symbolizing Christ the King

will lead the souls transformed by baptism to his city of

Jerusalem, to the mount of all saints – this meaning can

be read from the architectural elements placed on the bap-

tismal font and the accompanying decorations (frieze and

arcades with decorations of routs, rosettes, Fig. 7). The

eight long-haired heads shown on columns with bases in

the upper part of the baptismal font, above the frieze and

arcades, have the character of an architectural decoration

with a symbolic meaning. They can be perceived as mon-

umental images of saints decorating the architecture of the

Heavenly Jerusalem. Such heads or human gures on other

Gotland baptismal fonts (Figs. 9, 11) represented baptized

people of various ages, sexes and states who had achieved

salvation (Figs. 9C, D, 11C – the Paradise Tree of Life).

The ideological message and the corresponding icono-

graphic program of the baptismal font from the parish

church in Grudziądz have a wellthoughtout and coher-

dragon’s tails replaced by rich plant tendrils (e.g. Loccum, stalls in the

former Cistercian church, around 1250; Kołobrzeg cathedral, chapter

stalls, 1340; Schulpforta, stalls in the former Cistercian church, mid-14

century.

ent character. To illustrate dened theological content, the

creator of the baptismal font skilfully used compositional

solutions and artistic forms existing in his artistic envi-

ronment at the time the work was created. It is necessary

to emphasize its originality and artistic level, which dis-

tinguish the baptismal font in Grudziądz in relation to its

contemporary implementations of Gotlandic and Scandi-

navian provenance.

As already mentioned, the iconographic composition

of the decoration of the Grudziądz baptismal font is an

original work and – despite analogies – diers from re-

lated Gotland works by a procession of beasts moving in

one direction and a clear two-zone, symmetrical arrange-

ment of the entire composition. These dierences against

a background of the solutions existing in the Gotland tra-

dition and the coherent and unique ideological program

of the work allow us to hypothesize that this program was

given to the creator of the baptismal font along with the

order for its construction. Could this program have been

created in Grudziądz? I think so – within the Teutonic Or-

der, developing a theological concept for the decoration of

the baptismal font for the parish church was not unique. It

should be borne in mind that at a similar time, in the last

quarter of the 14

century, a program for the altarpiece

setting in the chapel of the Teutonic castle was created,

outstanding in its theological message; this work is known

today as the PolyptychofGrudziądz [28, pp. 87–100]. The

use of information about animals contained in the Phy-

siologus and the accompanying moralizing comments in

this environment in the 14

century was also not unusu-

al, much less belated. In his research on the history and

reception of the Physiologus, Friedrich Lauchert showed

that from the 13

century to the end of the Middle Ages,

inspiration from the content of this bestiary in literature,

poetry, preaching and art was common in Europe [29, pp.

164–195]. Therefore, the development of an ideological

program for the decoration of the Grudziądz baptismal

font in the 2

half of the 14

century, based on the de-

scriptions and comments contained in the Physiologus,

was not unique or atypical. From there, the program pre-

pared in Grudziądz could reach Gotland, which had been

an important centre of Hansa activity since the 12

cen-

tury, through trade contacts within the Hanseatic connec-

tions of the towns on the Vistula river in the territory of

the Teutonic state. The nished work probably arrived in

Grudziądz via the same route.

Translated by

BogusławSetkowicz

14 Janusz Maciej Nowiński

Abstract

Late Romanesque baptismal font from St. Nicholas Church in Grudziądz – import from Gotland

The article discusses the study of the baptismal font located next to the presbytery of Saint Nicholas parish church in Grudziądz. The aim of the

research conducted in 2023 was to verify current views on its centuries-old history. Our study presents the history of the object, its artistic provenance,

iconography and ideological content.

Based on the research, it was found that the late Romanesque baptismal bowl is an original work of Gotland provenance, dating back to the

half of the 14

century. Its Gotland origin is evidenced by formal, compositional and iconographic analogies connecting its creator with the style

of Gotland workshops known as the socalled Fröjel Group that was active in Gotland and southern Scandinavia around the mid14

century. The

decisive argument for the origin of the baptismal font from Gotland was the petrographic examination of its stone carried out in July 2023, which

showed that it was made of Gotland limestone found in the Hoburgen deposits. This work should therefore be treated as an import from Gotland.

The article also emphasizes that in order to illustrate the theological message, the creator of the baptismal font – in accordance with the tradition

present in his artistic environment – used symbolic representations of animals, the iconography of which and the dramaturgy of actions involving

them were taken from the medieval bestiary – Physiologus. The beasts shown on the baptismal font, exorcised by baptism, walk in a row towards

Christ symbolized by a lion.

Key words: Gotland, Grudziądz, St. Nicholas Church, baptismal font, Fröjel Group, Physiologus

Streszczenie

Późnoromańska chrzcielnica z kościoła św. Mikołaja w Grudziądzu – import z Gotlandii

W artykule zostały omówione badania chrzcielnicy ustawionej przy prezbiterium fary pw. św. Mikołaja w Grudziądzu. Celem badań prowadzo-

nych w 2023 r. była werykacja dotychczasowych poglądów na temat jej wielowiekowej historii. W pracy została zaprezentowana historia obiektu,

jego proweniencja artystyczna, ikonograa i treści ideowe.

Na podstawie badań stwierdzono, że późnoromańska czasza chrzcielnicy jest oryginalnym dziełem gotlandzkiej proweniencji, datowanym na

2. połowę XIV w. Za jej gotlandzkim pochodzeniem świadczą analogie formalne i kompozycyjnoikonograczne łączące jej twórcę ze stylistyką

warsztatów gotlandzkich znanych jako tzw. Grupa Fröjel, czynnych na Gotlandii i w południowej Skandynawii około połowy XIV w. Decydującym

argumentem o pochodzeniu chrzcielnicy z Gotlandii stało się badanie petrograczne jej kamienia w lipcu 2023 r., które wykazało, że została wyko-

nana z gotlandzkiego wapienia występującego w złożach Hoburgen. Należy zatem traktować to dzieło jako import z Gotlandii.

W artykule podkreślono także, że w celu zilustrowania teologicznego przesłania twórca chrzcielnicy – zgodnie z tradycją obecną w jego śro-

dowisku artystycznym – sięgnął po symboliczne przedstawienia zwierząt, których ikonograę oraz dramaturgię akcji z ich udziałem zaczerpnął

ze średniowiecznego bestiariusza – Fizjologa (Physiologus). Ukazane na czaszy chrzcielnicy bestie, egzorcyzmowane przez chrzest, idą w szeregu

ku Chrystusowi symbolizowanemu przez lwa.

Słowa kluczowe: Gotlandia, Grudziądz, kościół św. Mikołaja, chrzcielnica, grupa Fröjel, Physiologus

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