New color trends of the model Werkbund estates and Neues Bauen residential architecture during the Weimar Republic in Germany

Jadwiga Urbanik

doi:10.37190/arc210413

Abstract

The purpose of the article is to present the color trends of the Werkbund model housing estates (1927–1932) in the background of Neues Bauen residential architecture built under the urban construction program during the Weimar Republic in interwar Germany (1918–1932). After the World War I, despite the exhaustion of the country due to war, effort was made to build new housing estates, which later became a model for modern housing solutions. The task of the architects of that time was to show that industrialization was not synonymous with the loss of individuality. An excellent weapon in the fight for individuality of housing estates was color, which was used to distinguish new buildings from the surrounding grays of the old ones. The Weimar Republic period in Germany, displayed two distinct color trends “white architecture” and the “colorful city” (“Die farbige Stadt”). The most spectacular changes, aimed at giving German cities a new face, were initiated by Bruno Taut in Magdeburg and Berlin, Ernst May in Wrocław (former Breslau) and Frankfurt am Main, and Otto Haesler in Celle. The exhibition housing estates of the Werkbund, constructed from 1927 to 1932, were a review of the tendencies entering the housing construction of the interwar period. Today, the only way to discover the architect’s original concept following years of use and reconstruction of the houses (even those under conservation protection) is through stratigraphic studies of the paint coatings. These types of studies have been conducted in many model housing estates. This article is based on personal experience of the author who participated in the revalorization of Wrocław’s model housing estate Werkbund, where both color trends are clearly visible.

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2021

4(68)

DOI: 10.37190/arc210413

Jadwiga Urbanik*

New color trends of the model Werkbund estates

and Neues Bauen residential architecture

during the Weimar Republic in Germany

Introduction

During the Weimar Republic in Germany, two color

trends of Neues Bauen residential architecture were clear-

ly visible: “white architecture” and the “colorful city”

(Die farbige Stadt).

The pioneer of the “movement for color” (Farbenbe-

wegung) in Germany was Bruno Taut. His passion for

color was already evident in his early garden estates be-

fore World War I: Reform (1913–1930) in Magdeburg

and Falkenberg (1913–1914) in Berlin-Grünau [1]. The

Falkenberg estate was the rst in which Taut presented

the concept of colorful houses (Fig. 1). The period from

1918 to 1925 was a time of intense promotion of color in

residential architecture.

The trend of “white architecture” appeared in Germany

around 1926 and ended in 1933 with the coming to power

of the National Socialists and the return of traditional forms

in architecture (Heimatstil). White color was symbolical-

ly linked to the so-called Lebensreform, a reform focusing

on improving health conditions of the population by pro-

moting a new way of living in new and hygienic houses.

The purpose of the article is to present the color trends

of the Werkbund model estates (1927–1932) in the back-

ground of Neues Bauen residential architecture built under

the urban construction program during the Weimar Re-

public in interwar Germany (1918–1932).

The presented knowledge is the result of extensive his-

torical studies based on archival research (State Archive

in Wrocław, Wrocław Construction Archive-Department

of the Museum of Architecture in Wrocław, Akademie der

Künste in Berlin) and iconographic research. Apart from

the above mentioned, literature studies of contemporary

publications were conducted.

Succeeding many years of use and remodeling, today,

the only way to discover the original concept of the houses

(even those that were under conservation protection) is

through stratigraphic studies of the paint coatings of the

houses. In many housing estates such research has been

conducted and described in professional journals. This

article is based on the author’s personal experience in-

volving the revalorization of Wrocław’s Werkbund model

housing estate.

The original Werkbund exhibition catalogues [2]–[6]

and contemporary monographs on them [7]–[13] were an

excellent source of information.

An exceptional publication is a catalogue from an ex-

hibition organized in Wrocław’s Museum of Architecture

of six Werkbund model housing estates – A Way to Mo-

dernity, Werkbund Housing Estates 1927–1932 [14]. The

exhibition was organized as part of the European Capital

of Culture.

Priceless information is contained in professional jour-

nals of the interwar period.

However, the most relevant to the content of this article

are publications on the color of architecture of the inter-

war period, belonging to the Neues Bauen trend. These are

usually publications related to the restoration of buildings

and stratigraphic studies revealing the original colors of

the buildings [15]–[29].

Although the knowledge of the color scheme of the

interwar estates, especially of the Werkbund, is still in-

complete (it is shown in the indicated publications), the

color trends promoted at that time can already be clearly

noticed.

* ORCID: 0000-0003-0042-6813. Faculty of Architecture, Wro-

cław University of Science and Technology, e-mail: jadwiga.urbanik@

pwr.edu.pl

130 Jadwiga Urbanik

method oered fewer possibilities for obtaining a wide

spectrum of colors, whereas the second method oered

much greater possibilities thanks to the introduction of

mineral pigment production technology present at the

end of the 19

century. The advantage of paints based on

these pigments was their resistance to weather conditions

as well as the possibility of their production on an indus-

trial scale.

Between 1919 and 1925 May built many colorful

housing estates in Wrocław and its surroundings (Kleci-

na, Oltaszyn, Prudnik, Boleslawiec). He designed build-

ings in the form of barracks in which color (red, blue,

green) was the only decoration. May used, as he claimed,

the cheapest and most decorative means to enliven simple

architecture.

After the war, in Magdeburg 1921–1923 it was Bruno

Taut who was able to put his ideas into practice when he

became the city architect. His work inspired Ernst May

and Otto Haesler [23], [30], among others, to “ght for

color”, and the campaign Farbiges Magdeburg, which be-

gan in 1921, stimulated a “color movement” throughout

Germany. In the years to follow, an organization called

Die farbige Stadt was founded as well as a magazine un-

der the same name.

The eects of the ght for color were soon evident

in the architecture of Stuttgart, Halle, Freiburg [24], and

Pots dam. In Glauchau in 1922, an exhibition was held on

color in architecture. Among those exhibiting their work

were Bru no and Max Taut. In the same year, an exhibition

was organized to present the concept of a colored Pots-

dam [23].

The fashion for color had an inuence on the devel-

opment of the German chemical paint industry and its

dom in ance in Europe including: Hoechst (headquartered

in Frank furt am Main), BASF, Bayer, Agfa, Cassella, and

Kalle, dubbed the “Big Six”, both in Germany and abroad.

Around 1923, IG Farben introduced a durable, ecient,

and easy-to-use façade paint. The traditional and labor-in-

tensive mass-colored plaster was no longer necessary [31,

p. 420].

Dwelling estates built under the urban

construction program (1919–1924)

Under tough economic conditions, the Weimar Repub-

lic in the rst postwar years from 1919 to 1924, began to

take measures to solve the housing problem, which was

considered one of the chief social issues. Despite di-

cult nancial conditions, housing companies were estab-

lished at that time to support the design and construction

of houses and estates, particularly for working class fam-

ilies.

In the 1

half of the 1920s, the so-called crisis houses

(Notheim) were proposed. Due to a lack of building mate-

rials after World War I, housing companies used substitute

materials. In the search for low-cost solutions, local old

building materials were resorted to. Walls could be made

of blocks of dried clay, limestone, lime slag or wood.

Roofs were covered with shingles or even thatch.

Ernst May, the creator of Das neue Frankfurt, start-

ed his professional career in Wrocław in 1919 and was

appointed to manage the Schlesische Heimstätte compa-

ny. At that time May used color as an important artistic

means. Color was intended to reduce the monotony of

the ensembles of simple houses. The use of color by the

Schlesische Heimstätte was part of the all-German trend

for colorful construction of the interwar period. The archi-

tects strived to maintain originality of their works. Color,

used on the façades of the houses and in their interiors, be-

came an excellent means of attaining individual character

of the individual estates.

In 1922 Ernst May published an article in Schlesis-

ches Heim entitled Angst vor der Farbe [Fear of color], in

which he called for the use of color.

Schlesisches Heim published articles promoting the use

of color, where completed examples and technical prob-

lems were presented. It was written that no other means

gave such a specic character to a room at such low cost

as color.

Two possibilities of obtaining façade colors were indi-

cated: mass colored plaster and painted plaster. The rst

Fig. 1. Falkenberg garden estate in Berlin-Treptow, designed by B. Taut, 1913–1916, current state, color reconstruction design by W. Brenne:

a) terraced houses, Gartenstadtweg, b) multi-family houses, Gartenstadtweg (photo by R. Czajka, 2016)

Il. 1. Osiedle ogrodowe Falkenberg, Berlin-Treptow, zaprojektowane przez B. Tauta, 1913–1916, stan obecny, projekt rekonstrukcji kolorystyki

– W. Brenne: a) zabudowa szeregowa, Gartenstadtweg, b) dom wielorodzinny, Gartenstadtweg (fot. R. Czajka, 2016)

a b

New color trends of the model Werkbund estates 131

Dwelling estates built under the urban

construction program (1925–1932)

The introduction of the Rentenmark currency in Octo-

ber 1923, as well as the Charles Gates Dawes Plan, led to

the stabilization of the German economy. Foreign capital

began to ow. April 1924 marked the beginning of a phase

of economic recovery hitherto unknown in Germany – the

“Golden Twenties” (Goldene Zwanziger Jahre).

Invigorated by economic growth, “The movement for

color” experienced its peak between 1926 and 1929. Color

was used in mass housing construction both by radical,

avant-garde architects, advocates of Neues Bauen (Bruno

Taut, Ernst May, Otto Haesler).

In German architecture of the Weimar Republic, there

was what Wolfgang Pehnt called the “scream for color”

[32], which was close to expressionism in art in its vivid,

bright color palette. Between 1925 and 1930, more than

one million buildings were given a new color scheme.

Between 1924 and 1929 the economic situation was

relatively stable. The introduction of a tax on rental hous-

es in the spring of 1924 improved it further and enabled

the development of mass housing construction of small,

two- and three-room apartments.

The most spectacular changes were those aimed at giv-

ing German cities a new face. The movement for color, on

the one hand, entailed the restoration of old urban build-

ings (Die farbige Stadt – the colorful city), while on the

other, the construction of new rational social housing.

In the new housing estates, color had an important task

to fulll. Taut believed that a colorful cityscape had a pos-

itive eect on its inhabitants. Color was supposed to cre-

ate the impression of a safe living space in the so-called

Großsiedlungen, the new and rational housing estates

[23]. Since 1925 many colorful housing estates of this

type have been built in Germany, with two cities, Berlin

and Frankfurt am Main, playing a leading role in this eld.

It was there, that the proposals of the social democratic

architects Martin Wagner, city architect (Stadtbaurat) in

Berlin from 1926 and Ernst May, city architect in Frank-

furt am Main from 1925 were accepted by the munici-

pal authorities. In the late 1920s, color became a symbol

of modernity through its originality, novelty, association

with new form, and modern paint technologies. Color was

to help avoid the monotony of the bare walls of the new

housing developments, give them artistic expression, and

emphasize the compactness of the entire complexes. Ac-

cording to Rieger, from 1928 onward, […] the question of

color loses its relevance, there is an oversaturation, the

glamour of the fashionable fades, the movement for color

loses its lasting links with progressive artists and archi-

tects [23, p. 166].

In addition to their residential function, the colorful

neighborhoods were also meant to satisfy the psycholog-

ical need for a friendly, nature-compatible environment.

Color gave a sense of security due to the possibility of

easy identication of the houses, and was supposed to

compensate the residents for the reduction of green areas

(in comparison with garden estates, which were previous-

ly extremely popular in Germany). Individual greenery

was reduced in favor of a singular common one. A variety

of colors in the estate was to replace the private backyard

garden. Progressive architects argued that the further away

from nature residents were, the more color was needed

by them. For the residents of tall multi-family houses, so

promoted by the functionalists for economic reasons, only

green areas for common use were created. Color became

a means to complement nature, and combine the organic

with the inorganic.

Each architect had his own individual way of design-

ing the color scheme of the housing estates. Otto Haesler

in Celle avoided creating a uniform façade, using strong

contrasting colors alternately (red and strong blue in the

Italienischer Garten in Celle), emphasizing the fragmen-

tation of the building mass.

Ernst May, a pioneer of European social housing, initi-

ated the construction of several housing estates with lively

colors in Frankfurt am Main (e.g., Römerstadt, Rieder-

wald, Praunheim).

Despite the typication and uniformity, he promoted,

May saw the use of color as an opportunity to diversify

the landscape of a settlement,. He did not dierentiate the

colors of the façades of houses, thus creating a uniform

frontage of streets. He distinguished individual buildings

by color, when they occupied a special position (for exam-

ple, corner houses) or had an important function (schools,

kindergartens, laundries, stores, meeting rooms, etc.). He

used the following color scheme: white walls on the south

side (exposed to sunlight), colored façades on the north

or west side (with low light). This method provided color

permanence and coziness of street interiors.

The Berlin housing estates of Bruno Taut had a dis-

tinctive character. The architect was looking for a special

expression for new democratic buildings for the mass-

es. He avoided bare walls and massive blocks and used

color to emphasize the divisions and dissection of the

building. He favored intense colors, broken – for large

surfaces, and basic – for small ones (window and door

woodwork). A characteristic feature of Taut’s housing

estates was accenting the beginning of a row of hous-

es by changing the color of the corners of the gable

walls. Taut used a richer color palette than May. He used

eight dierent colors in Zehlendorf, while May only used

four in Frankfurt Römerstadt. The group of colorful Ber-

lin estates includes: Britz (Hufeisensiedlung) in the dis-

trict of Neukölln (Fig. 2), Waldsiedlung Zehlendorf (On-

kel Toms Hütte) in the district of Zehlendorf and groups

of buildings in the city that do not form separate estates

(Fig. 3).

Bruno Taut and Ernst May’s publications in the Schle-

sische Heimstätte helped to draw attention to the im-

portance of color in shaping architectural form. An espe-

cially signicant role was played by the involvement of

mu nicipal building authorities, who supported the move-

ment for color. Two methods were used to inuence the

shaping of color in the city: “color dictatorship” according

to Ernst May’s conception, which he applied in Frankfurt

am Main where municipal functionaries supervised paint-

ing work done in accordance with pre-drawn up plans,

and “consultancy” in Wrocław which was voluntary by

132 Jadwiga Urbanik

nature. An independent organization was established to

organize color design according to uniform criteria [33].

The Municipal Council for the Arts and the “Colorful

City” Society were established.

In addition to the color trend, around 1926 a style of ar-

chitecture emerged in Germany where white was the dom-

inant color. The creators of “white architecture” were in-

spired by Suprematism and Neo-Plasticism in art as well as

by the achievements of Le Corbusier and the Dutch group

De Stijl in architecture. Piet Mondrian attributed a specic

meaning to primary colors: blue was supposed to be dis-

tancing, yellow – extending, red – rising [34]. They merely

complemented white (in some cases also gray and black) in

the plastic composition of colors on smooth façades. Mon-

drian’s early paintings (until 1921) used primary colors

largely muted by white, while the intro duction of pure pri-

mary colors in full saturation was caused by Bart van der

Leck and his important contributions to De Stijl. A model

Fig. 2. Hufeisensiedlung in Berlin-Britz, designed by B. Taut, M. Wagner, 1925–1927, reconstruction design by H. Pitz, W. Brenne,

after the second renovation: a) houses at Fritz Reuter Allee, rote Front, b) houses at Lowise-Reuter Ring, Hufeisen (photo by J. Urbanik, 2015)

Il. 2. Osiedle Hufeisensiedlung, Berlin-Britz, zaprojektowane przez B. Tauta, M. Wagnera, 1925–1927, projekt renowacji: H. Pitz, W. Brenne,

po drugiej renowacji: a) domy przy Fritz Reuter Allee, rote Front, b) domy przy Lowise-Reuter Ring, Hufeisen (fot. J. Urbanik, 2015)

Fig. 3. Multi-family houses at Trierer Strasse, designed by B. Taut

in Berlin-Weissensee, 1925–1926, reconstruction design by W. Brenne

(photo by J. Urbanik, 2015)

Il. 3. Domy wielorodzinne przy Trierer Strasse,

zaprojektowane przez B. Tauta, Berlin-Weissensee, 1925–1926,

projekt renowacji: W. Brenne (fot. J. Urbanik, 2015)

Fig. 4. House designed by G.T. Rietveld

for Mrs. T. Schröder-Schräder in Utrecht, 1924, original colour scheme

(photo by J. Urbanik, 2008)

Il. 4. Dom zaprojektowany przez G.T. Rietvelda

dla T. Schröder-Schräder, Utrecht, 1924, oryginalna kolorystyka

(fot. J. Urbanik, 2008)

a b

New color trends of the model Werkbund estates 133

project of this trend became the house designed by Ger-

rit Thomas Rietveld for Mrs. Truus Schröder-Schräder in

Utrecht in 1924 (Fig. 4). Its color scheme was a composi-

tion of colorful lines and surfaces, white and black were

complemented by three colors: yellow, red, and blue.

The De Stijl group sought to create a rational, intellec-

tual, and impersonal style in architecture and design. The

inuence of this style on German avant-garde architects

became evident with the arrival of Theo van Doesburg

at the Bauhaus headquarters in Weimar in 1921. He was

credited with steering the Bauhaus away from expression-

ism and toward constructivism [35].

Architectural innovators created the dream user for

their new rational estates and apartments. This anony-

mous and abstract role was that of a sober and organized

man. Removed from his surroundings was everything that

was not contemporary, all that did not match the simple,

hygienic, and organized layout (linear layout – Zeilenbau-

wiese) of the white estates and small apartments of the

Existenzminimum type.

One of the propagators of such solutions was the Reichs

forschungsgesellschaft für Wirtschaftlichkeit im Bau- und

Wohnungwesen (RFG – State Research Society for the

Economics of Construction and Housing), whose aim was

to study the optimization of housing and residential space.

The RFG adopted several new model housing estates

as its patron (e.g., the Dammerstock estate in Karlsruhe

(Fig. 5) and the Haselhorst estate in Berlin, both under the

auspices of the Werkbund).

For the functionalists, the white color of the buildings

was an expression of their modernist way of thinking,

symbolizing purity, as well as anonymity of the individual

in a society to which these innovative solutions were ad-

dressed. White was not only meant to distinguish the new

construction from the surrounding grayness of the old

houses, but was also symbolically linked to the so-called

Lebensreform, a reform focusing on improving the health

conditions of society (among other things by promoting

a new way of living in new, hygienic houses).

The use of color in “white estates” was limited to pri-

mary colors only. Otto Haesler’s Georgsgarten estate in

Celle is one of the earlier (1924–1926) linear estates. Here

white was supplemented with yellow on façades on the

east side and window frames, dark blue, and red window

frames and sashes in bay windows. The colors were used

to emphasized function by indicating entrances, windows,

and even water pipes (blue – for cold water, red – for hot

water).

The increasing use of white color in German architec-

ture as of 1929 was called the “white wall revolution”.

In Berlin, some of the Großsiedlungen from 1929 to

1931 (Weisse Stadt in the Reinickendorf district, Frie-

drich-Ebert-Siedlung in the Wedding district and Sie-

mensstadt in the Charlottenburg district) were referred to

as the “white architecture” housing estates.

Adolf Hitler’s rise to power in 1933 marked the end of

“white architecture”, and meant the closing of progressive

schools (Bauhaus, Academy of Art in Wrocław) and the

dispersion of the German avant-garde community around

the world.

Werkbund’s experimental model housing estates

The exhibition estates of the Werkbund, which dis-

played functional, formal, and technological features of

modernist architecture, played a unique role in the histo-

ry of modern housing. These estates whose construction

dated from 1927–1932 (from the economic growth to the

economic crisis period of the Weimar Republic) were

built to assess the functional principles of the new style of

architecture, to present new possibilities in mass construc-

tion, and to present new types of small and inexpensive

houses and apartments.

The exhibition Die Wohnung with a model housing

estate in Stuttgart was the rst overview of the latest ideas

in housing. Over the next ve years, further experimental

model housing estates were built, most of them in conjunc-

tion with housing exhibitions including: the “New House”

(“Nový Dům”) housing estate in Brno, in the Žabovřesky

district which accompanied the “Contemporary Czecho-

slovak Culture” exhibition in 1928, the WuWA housing

estate in Breslau in 1929, accompanying the “Living and

Working Space” (“Wohnung und Werkraum” Ausstel-

lung) exhibition, the “Neubühl” housing estate in Zurich

in 1931 in the Wollishofen district, the “Baba” housing

estate in Prague in 1932 in the Dejvice district, and the

“Lainz” housing estate in Vienna in 1932.

Avant-garde European architects, while presenting their

concepts for housing proposed not only new plans for

apart ments, new forms of houses, but also new colors. Un-

fortunately, knowledge on this subject was still incomplete

because professional restoration works were not conducted

everywhere. Only following stratigraphic examination of

paint coatings could reliable information about the original

colors be obtained.

Fig. 5. Dammerstock estate in Karlsruhe,

multi family block of flats, post-renovation,

renovation design by matzka architekt

(photo by J. Urbanik, 2013)

Il. 5. Osiedle Dammerstock, Karlsruhe,

zaprojektowane przez W. Gropiusa z zespołem, 1929,

dom wielorodzinny, stan po renowacji,

projekt renowacji: matzka architekt

(fot. J. Urbanik, 2013)

134 Jadwiga Urbanik

The rst renovation works were carried out in Weissen-

hof in the 1980’s. However, only half of the houses were

renovated, as only that many had survived the war. At

a similar time, the renovation of Neubühl began. In Vien-

na, the rst phase of renewal was from 1983 to 1985, the

second from 2011 to 2016. In Wrocław, in 2011, a muni-

cipal program was launched to nancially support the re-

vitalization of private houses of the WuWA estate. Despite

incomplete data, it is possible to indicate the color trends

that were promoted during the exhibitions.

In 1927, the Werkbund Weissenhof in Stuttgart became

known as a “white” housing estate (Fig. 6).

Other housing estates were described in an equivalent

way. In Wrocław, Ilse Molzahn wrote about the gleaming

white terrain of estates [36]. Gustav Wolf, co-creator of

the Wrocław housing estate, pointed to a certain uniform-

Fig. 6. Weissenhof Werkbund estate in Stuttgart, 1927:

a) semi-detached house, designed by Le Corbusier and P. Jeanneret, following its second renovation in 2003–2005,

renovation design by Büro Architektur 109 (Arne Fentzloff and Mark Arnold),

b) detached house designed by H. Scharoun, after renovation in the 1980’s

(photo by J. Urbanik, 2015)

Il. 6. Osiedle Werkbundu – Weissenhof, Stuttgart, 1927:

a) dom bliźniaczy zaprojektowany przez Le Corbusiera i P. Jeannereta, po drugiej renowacji w 2003–2005,

projekt renowacji: Büro Architektur 109 (A. Fentzloff i M. Arnold),

b) dom jednorodzinny zaprojektowany przez H. Scharouna, po renowacji w latach 80. XX w.

(fot. J. Urbanik, 2015)

Fig. 7. WuWA Werkbund estate in Wrocław (former Breslau), 1929:

a) eight unit house designed by G. Wolf, after renovation in 2017, renovation design by J. Bułat and K. Bułat, 2016,

stratigraphic studies of paint coatings by K. Wantuch-Jarkiewicz and A. Jarkiewicz, 2016,

b) gallery-access block of flats designed by P. Heim and A. Kempter, after renovation in 2014, renovation design by K. Lato, 2013,

stratigraphic studies of paint coatings by A. Witkowska and D. Lawenda, 2013,

c) multi-unit house designed by E. Lange, after renovations in 2017, renovation design by J. Bułat and B. Bułat, 2016,

stratigraphic studies of paint coatings by K. Wantuch-Jarkiewicz and A. Jarkiewicz, 2016

(photo by J. Ilkosz, 2019)

Il. 7. Osiedle Werkbundu – WuWA, Wrocław (dawny Breslau), 1929:

a) dom ośmiorodzinny zaprojektowany przez G. Wolfa, po renowacji w 2017, projekt renowacji: J. Bułat i K. Bułat, 2016,

badania stratygraficzne powłok malarskich: K. Wantuch-Jarkiewicz i A. Jarkiewicz, 2016,

b) dom galeriowy zaprojektowany przez P. Heima i A. Kemptera, po renowacji w 2014, projekt renowacji: K. Lato, 2013,

badania stratygraficzne powłok malarskich: A. Witkowska and D. Lawenda, 2013,

c) dom wielorodzinny, zaprojektowany przez E. Langego, po renowacji w 2017, projekt renowacji: J. Bułat i B. Bułat, 2016,

badania stratygraficzne powłok malarskich: K. Wantuch-Jarkiewicz i A. Jarkiewicz, 2016

(fot. J. Ilkosz, 2019)

a b

b c

New color trends of the model Werkbund estates 135

ity of color proposals. He believed that architects accep-

ted the tendency of the time for light colors both inside

and outside, ranging from white to light pastel shades

[37] (Fig. 7). In this respect the similarity of WuWA to the

original Weissenhof in Stuttgart can be seen.

Strong saturated colors also appeared in the landscape

of the model estates. Mart Stam’s terraced houses had an

ultramarine front façade [23], [17] (Fig. 8).

Bruno Taut in his detached house proposed dark pink

and blue façades. Le Corbusier’s semi-detached house

used indigo and brick red in addition to the white exterior

(Fig. 6). In Hans Scharoun’s single-family house, white

was complemented by a contrasting brick color used un-

conventionally on the ceiling or in the form of a strip on

the wall (Fig. 9).

In Gerrit Rietveld’s house in Vienna, the pastel pink

of the façade was contrasted with the sapphire and spring

green of the door frames both in and outside the build-

ing (Fig. 10). This house is nothing like his 1924 Utrecht

project, (the house of interior designer Truus Schröder-

Fig. 8. Weissenhof Werkbund estate in Stuttgart, 1927,

terraced houses designed by M. Stam,

after the renovation in the 1980’s

(photo by J. Urbanik, 2018)

Il. 8. Osiedle Werkbundu – Weissenhof, Stuttgart, 1927,

dom szeregowy zaprojektowany przez M. Stama,

po renowacji w latach 80. XX w.

(fot. J. Urbanik, 2018)

Fig. 9. Weissenhof Werkbund estate in Stuttgart, 1927,

detached house designed by H. Scharoun,

after renovation in the 1980’s, interior

(photo by J. Urbanik, 2015)

Il. 9. Osiedle Werkbundu – Weissenhof, Stuttgart, 1927,

dom jednorodzinny zaprojektowany przez H. Scharouna,

po renowacji w latach 80. XX w., wnętrze

(fot. J. Urbanik, 2015)

Fig. 10. Lainz Werkbund estate

in Vienna, 1932, terraced houses

after renovation in 2011–2016,

renovation design by P. GOOD

Praschl-Goodarzi Architekten

(photo by J. Urbanik, 2012)

Il. 10. Osiedle Werkbundu

– Wiedeń, 1932, dom szeregowy

zaprojektowany przez G. Rietvelda,

po renowacji w latach 2011–2016,

projekt renowacji: P. GOOD

Praschl-Goodarzi Architekten

(fot. J. Urbanik, 2012)

136 Jadwiga Urbanik

Schräder), where he used the Mondrianesque color palette

so characteristic of the De Stijl group and the Netherlands.

The color scheme of the multi-family house designed

by Adolf Rading in the WuWA estate is also well known.

The architect used three contrasting colors: white, black

and red. He used color to separate the functions of individ-

ual rooms. For this purpose, he used not only the surface

of the walls, but also the ceiling, which he painted black

[37]. Moritz Hadda used similar colors in the single-fam-

ily house designed in the WuWA housing estate. The fur-

niture was more traditional in form, wooden, upholstered,

and strongly colored [38], while the intense red of the

walls contrasted with the black slats of the bookshelves

[39]. All these projects, despite the use of intense colors

can be classied as “white architecture”, because white

was the dominant color.

A completely dierent, and extremely interesting color

concept was proposed by Hans Scharoun in his house for

singles and childless couples (Ledigenheim). Working

in an unconventional way, not subject to any rigors, he

left the CIAM (Congrès Internationaux d’Architecture

Moderne) soon after its founding, protesting against the

doctrinaire rationalism of Le Corbusier and the ideology

of international architecture. Therefore, his architectural

works, not replicating the geometric patterns of the inter-

national style are so unique.

The color concept of Hans Scharoun’s Wrocław pro-

ject is close to the colors he used in his paintings. After

his stay in Breslau, the architect moved to Berlin. There

he created numerous watercolors depicting his architec-

tural visions. A similar color palette was present in all his

works. Only in his rst few Berlin buildings dating back

to 1928–1931, did the architect give in, to the style of the

time and designed white façades.

Scharoun’s architectural works were unique, not rep-

licating the geometric patterns of the international style.

Stratigraphic studies have shown that he changed the color

Fig. 11. WuWA Werkbund estate in Wrocław (former Breslau), 1929,

hotel like building for single people and childless couples

stratigraphic studies of paint coatings by J.M. Żelbromski, 1993,

renovation design by J. Urbanik and A. Gryglewska, 1993

(photo by R. Sołdek, 2010)

Il. 11. Osiedle Werkbundu – WuWA, Wrocław (dawny Breslau), 1929,

dom hotelowy dla osób samotnych i małżeństw bezdzietnych

zaprojektowany przez H. Scharouna, oryginalny kolor elewacji,

badania stratygraficzne powłok malarskich: J.M. Żelbromski, 1993,

projekt renowacji: J. Urbanik i A. Gryglewska, 1993

(fot. R. Sołdek, 2010)

Fig. 13. WuWA Werkbund estate in Wrocław (former Breslau), 1929,

hotel like building for single people and childless couples

renovation design by J. Urbanik and A. Gryglewska, 2008, restaurant

(photo by J. Urbanik, 2009)

Il. 13. Osiedle Werkbundu – WuWA, Wrocław (dawny Breslau), 1929,

dom hotelowy dla osób samotnych i małżeństw bezdzietnych

zaprojektowany przez H. Scharouna,

projekt renowacji: J. Urbanik i A. Gryglewska, 2008, restauracja

(fot. J. Urbanik, 2009)

Fig. 12. WuWA Werkbund estate in Wrocław (former Breslau), 1929,

hotel like building for single people and childless couples

A. Gryglewska and A. Tomaszewicz, 2011, 2013,

roof terrace of the building’s left wing, after renovations in 2011, 2013

(photo by J. Urbanik, 2014)

Il. 12. Osiedle Werkbundu – WuWA, Wrocław (dawny Breslau), 1929,

dom hotelowy dla osób samotnych i małżeństw bezdzietnych

zaprojektowany przez H. Scharouna, projekt renowacji: J. Urbanik,

A. Gryglewska i A. Tomaszewicz, 2011, 2013,

taras na dachu lewego skrzydła budynku, po renowacji w 2011, 2013

(fot. J. Urbanik, 2014)

New color trends of the model Werkbund estates 137

Fig. 15. WuWA Werkbund estate in Wrocław (former Breslau), 1929,

hotel like building for single people and childless couples

apartment of the building’s right wing by J. Urbanik and A. Gryglewska,

2008; living room with kitchen niche, 2009–2010

(photo by J. Urbanik, 2010)

Il. 15. Osiedle Werkbundu – WuWA, Wrocław (dawny Breslau), 1929,

dom hotelowy dla osób samotnych i małżeństw bezdzietnych

zaprojektowany przez H. Scharouna, projekt renowacji mieszkań

dwupoziomowych prawego skrzydła budynku: J. Urbanik i A. Gryglewska,

2008; pokój dzienny z niszą kuchenną, 2009–2010

(fot. J. Urbanik, 2010)

Fig. 16. Weissenhof Werkbund estate in Stuttgart, 1927,

semi-detached house designed by Le Corbusier and P. Jeanneret,

following its second renovation in 2003–2005,

renovation design by Büro Architektur 109

(A. Fentzloff and M. Arnold),

staircase (photo by J. Urbanik, 2018)

Il. 16. Osiedle Werkbundu – Weissenhof, Stuttgart, 1927,

dom bliźniaczy zaprojektowany przez Le Corbusiera i P. Jeannereta,

po drugiej renowacji w latach 2003–2005,

projekt renowacji: Büro Architektur 109

(A. Fentzloff i M. Arnold), klatka schodowa

(fot. J. Urbanik, 2018)

Fig. 14. WuWA Werkbund estate in Wrocław (former Breslau), 1929, hotel like building for single people and childless couples

a) color scheme of the split-level apartments of the building’s right wing, even numbers,

b) color scheme of the split level apartments of the building’s right wing, odd numbers (source: archives of the National Labour Training Centre)

Il. 14. Osiedle Werkbundu – WuWA, Wrocław (dawny Breslau), 1929, dom hotelowy dla osób samotnych i małżeństw bezdzietnych

zaprojektowany przez H. Scharouna, projekt renowacji mieszkań J. Urbanik i A. Gryglewska, 2008:

a) kolorystyka dwupoziomowych mieszkań prawego skrzydła budynku, numery parzyste, b) kolorystyka dwupoziomowych mieszkań

prawego skrzydła budynku, numery nieparzyste (źródło: archiwum Ośrodka Szkolenia Państwowej Inspekcji Pracy)

a b

138 Jadwiga Urbanik

concept even during the execution phase. The façades of

the Ledigenheim building were painted in ochre light (“lu-

minous”) color (Fig. 11). All elements of railings, external

balustrades, window, and door frames were painted in grey

(“mouse grey”). Only the balcony doors of the right wing of

the building were in the color of the elevation – light grey.

The reinforced concrete structure of the trellis on the roof

of the left wing was orange-red concrete (Fig. 12), while

the elements of the building foundation and the retaining

walls were left in their natural color (concrete color).

The general use interiors (lobby and restaurant) fea-

tured strong and vibrant colors. The lobby was a deep blue

color, against which shiny armchairs made of steel pipes

cast silver reections, while the restaurant was dominated

by many shades of red [39, p. 410]. In the saturated colors

of the lobby and restaurant of Hans Scharoun’s house and

in the way they were combined, the spirit of expression-

ism can be sensed. The use of intense colors and simple

geometric patterns (blue and pink stripes on the gable wall

of the restaurant, a blue stripe repeating the shape of the

room on the ceiling of the lobby) is close both to the ex-

pressive shaping of space and to the color tendencies of

the late twenties associated with the German campaign for

color in the city (Fig. 13).

In the residential sections, Scharoun proposed two

color versions in pastel tones (ivory, light ochre, olive

green, ash or ivory, beige, brick red, ash in the right wing

sections), enhanced by wooden or chrome-plated furnish-

ings [27] (Figs. 14, 15).

Hans Scharoun’s house for singles was one of the pro-

jects included in the 1925–1930 nationwide campaign of

the “colorful city” (Die farbige Stadt). In Breslau Hans

Scharoun, Theo Eenberger, Moritz Hadda (architects

of the WuWA exhibition housing estate), and Hermann

Wahlich functioned as heads of departments of the Build-

ing Police responsible for the city’s color scheme [33].

half of 1920s was a period of a real “cry for color”,

still originating in expressionism, for which color was

also a means of architectural expression. More than one

million buildings in Germany at that time received a new

coat of color.

It is interesting that the color scheme of the interior of

Le Corbusier’s semi-detached house from the Weissen-

hof estate is almost identical to Scharoun’s proposal from

Wrocław. Although these architects shared a completely

dierent approach to shaping architectural form, their

taste for color was similar. Le Corbusier’s house, white

on the outside, presents a real “cosmos of colors” on the

inside. The colors were saturated, yet fractured, so char-

acteristic of the mineral pigments that were used at the

time (Fig. 16).

Summary

The examples described above show that regardless of

whether they are model houses in the Werkbund housing

estates or houses built as part of the city construction pro-

gram, their colors fall within the trends of “white architec-

ture” or of the “colorful city”. The color scheme clearly

reected the very individual tastes of its architects.

Today, knowledge of the color scheme is essential to

the proper revalorization of interwar architecture, thus

portraying original character is the duty of both historians

and conservators.

Translated by

Jan Urbanik,

proofreading by Katarzyna Jaroch

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Abstract

New color trends of the model Werkbund estates and Neues Bauen residential architecture

during the Weimar Republic in Germany

The purpose of the article is to present the color trends of the Werkbund model housing estates (1927–1932) in the background of Neues Bauen

residential architecture built under the urban construction program during the Weimar Republic in interwar Germany (1918–1932). After the World

War I, despite the exhaustion of the country due to war, eort was made to build new housing estates, which later became a model for modern housing

solutions. The task of the architects of that time was to show that industrialization was not synonymous with the loss of individuality. An excellent

weapon in the ght for individuality of housing estates was color, which was used to distinguish new buildings from the surrounding grays of the

old ones. The Weimar Republic period in Germany, displayed two distinct color trends “white architecture” and the “colorful city” (“Die farbige

Stadt”). The most spectacular changes, aimed at giving German cities a new face, were initiated by Bruno Taut in Magdeburg and Berlin, Ernst May

in Wrocław (former Breslau) and Frankfurt am Main, and Otto Haesler in Celle. The exhibition housing estates of the Werkbund, constructed from

1927 to 1932, were a review of the tendencies entering the housing construction of the interwar period. Today, the only way to discover the architect’s

original concept following years of use and reconstruction of the houses (even those under conservation protection) is through stratigraphic studies

of the paint coatings. These types of studies have been conducted in many model housing estates. This article is based on personal experience of the

author who participated in the revalorization of Wrocław’s model housing estate Werkbund, where both color trends are clearly visible.

Key words: Weimar Republic, Neues Bauen, Werkbund, color trends, residential architecture

Streszczenie

Nowe trendy kolorystyczne wzorcowych osiedli Werkbundu i architektury mieszkaniowej nurtu Neues Bauen

w okresie Republiki Weimarskiej w Niemczech

Celem artykułu jest przedstawienie trendów kolorystycznych propagowanych we wzorcowych osiedlach mieszkaniowych Werkbundu (1927–

1932) na tle kolorystyki architektury mieszkaniowej nurtu Neues Bauen powstającej w ramach programów budownictwa miejskiego w okresie

Republiki Weimarskiej w międzywojennych Niemczech (1918–1932). Po I wojnie światowej, mimo wyniszczenia kraju, podjęto trud budowy

nowych osiedli, które później stały się wzorem dla nowoczesnych rozwiązań mieszkaniowych. Zadaniem ówczesnych architektów było pokazanie,

że industrializacja nie jest równoznaczna z utratą indywidualności. Doskonałą bronią w walce o zróżnicowany charakter osiedli był kolor, którym

140 Jadwiga Urbanik

odróżniano nowe budynki od otaczającej je szarości starych. Okres Republiki Weimarskiej w Niemczech charakteryzował się dwoma wyraźnymi

trendami kolorystycznymi nazwanymi: „białą architekturą” i „kolorowym miastem” („Die farbige Stadt”). Najbardziej spektakularne zmiany, mające

nadać niemieckim miastom nowe oblicze, zapoczątkowali Bruno Taut w Magdeburgu i Berlinie, Ernst May we Wrocławiu i Frankfurcie nad Menem

oraz Otto Haesler w Celle. Wystawowe osiedla Werkbundu, budowane w latach 1927–1932, były przeglądem tendencji dotyczących budownictwa

mieszkaniowego okresu międzywojennego. Dziś jedynym sposobem poznania oryginalnej koncepcji architekta po latach użytkowania i przebudo-

wy domów (nawet tych objętych ochroną konserwatorską) są badania stratygraczne powłok malarskich. Tego typu prace zostały przeprowadzone

w wielu wzorcowych osiedlach mieszkaniowych. Artykuł opiera się na osobistych doświadczeniach autorki, która uczestniczyła w rewaloryzacji

wrocławskiego wzorcowego osiedla Werkbundu, gdzie oba trendy kolorystyczne są wyraźnie widoczne.

Słowa kluczowe: Republika Weimarska, Neues Bauen, Werkbund, trendy kolorystyczne, architektura mieszkaniowa