Prothyron from the Villa of Theseus in Nea Paphos, Cyprus

Aleksandra Brzozowska-Jawornicka

doi:10.37190/arc230403

Abstract

The aim of the paper is to present a reconstruction of a monumental gate leading to the Villa of Theseus, a Roman palace in Nea Paphos on Cyprus. During the excavations carried out near the main entrance to the residence, a set of several fragments of architectural decoration was discovered, including pieces of columns and cornices. The analysis of the architectural decoration, relics of the entrance to the palace in situ and analogies from the Roman residences made it possible to propose a reconstruction of the monumental gate leading to the compound entrance complex of the palace. It was probably designed in the form of a wide door preceded by a two-column porch crowned with a triangular pediment with a tympanum: a form that Vitruvius called a prothyron.

Keywords:
article
prothyron
nea paphos
villa of theseus
entrance

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2024

1(77)

Aleksandra Brzozowska-Jawornicka*

Prothyron from the Villa of Theseus in Nea Paphos, Cyprus

I met Professor Jacek Kościuk during my studies at the

Faculty of Architecture at Wrocław University of Science

and Technology, when he introduced students to the in-

tricacies of computer-aided design programs. We began

to work together more closely during my doctoral stud-

ies when Professor Kościuk, serving as my supervisor,

provided support and guidance. Thanks to his assistance,

many hours of joint work, and discussions, I gained valu-

able experience and skills.

Professor Kościuk not only shared his knowledge in

the elds of architecture and modern technologies but also

inspiringly guided my research. I am grateful for the sup-

port that Professor Kościuk provided me with during my

academic journey. His commitment, patience, and profes-

sionalism were crucial to my academic development, and

his unique sense of humour made our collaboration not

only exceptionally instructive but also enjoyable. It is an

honour for me to have been able to work with such an

outstanding scholar.

DOI: 10.37190/arc240103

Published in open access. CC BY NC ND license

Introduction

Each house needs a gate connecting it with the out-

side world. In case of an ancient Greco-Roman res-

idence, which not only served as a family home but

also performed a public function, the entrance gained

an additional meaning serving as a kind of the owner’s

“show-o“ announcing the social and political position

of the family.

The excavations conducted in 2008 [1, pp. 286–287,

Fig. 3] by the Polish Archaeological Mission of Warsaw

University in Nea Paphos on Cyprus

in the Late Roman

Street between the Villa of Theseus and the House of Aion

revealed among others a set of several fragments belong-

From 2008 to 2019 Doctor Henryk Meyza directed the Polish ex-

cavations in Maloutena. Presently the Mission is supervised by Professor

Ewdoksia Papuci-Władyka. The author is grateful to the Mission’s direc-

tors for their assistance in conducting architectural research in Malout-

ena. Since the beginning of the excavations the reports presenting the

results have been regularly published among others in Bulletin de Corre-

spondance Hellénique (BCH, https://www.persee.fr/collection/bch [ac-

cessed 15.05.2023]), Annual Reports of the Department of Antiquities

(ARDAC, http://www.mcw.gov.cy/mcw/da/da.nsf/DMLanreport_en/

DMLanreport_en?OpenDocument [accessed 15.05.2023]) and Polish

Archaeology in the Mediterranean (https://pcma.uw.edu.pl/category/

publikacje/pam-journal/ [accessed: 15.05.2023]).

* ORCID: 0000-0003-0695-3016. Faculty of Architecture, Wro-

cław University of Science and Technology, Poland, e-mail: aleksandra.

brzozowska-jawornicka@pwr.edu.pl

Abstract

The aim of the paper is to present a reconstruction of a monumental gate leading to the Villa of Theseus, a Roman palace in Nea Paphos on

Cyprus. During the excavations carried out near the main entrance to the residence, a set of several fragments of architectural decoration was

discovered, including pieces of columns and cornices. The analysis of the architectural decoration, relics of the entrance to the palace in situ and

analogies from the Roman residences made it possible to propose a reconstruction of the monumental gate leading to the compound entrance

complex of the palace. It was probably designed in the form of a wide door preceded by a two-column porch crowned with a triangular pediment

with a tympanum: a form that Vitruvius called a prothyron.

Key words: Nea Paphos, Villa of Theseus, entrance, prothyron

1(77)/2024

20 Aleksandra Brzozowska-Jawornicka

ing most probably to a richly designed entrance (Fig. 1).

The proximity of the discovery place to the gate of the

Villa of Theseus indicates a potential aliation of these

elements to the main entrance to this building.

The paper presents a reconstruction based on the frag-

ments in question of a porch which could have constituted

the outer part of the main entrance of the Villa.

The context of the place:

the Villa of Theseus and Nea Paphos

Nea Paphos, for many centuries the capital of Hel-

lenistic and Roman Cyprus, was founded in the end of

the 4

century BC on the south–western coast of Cyprus

(Fig. 1). The city was designed in a very modern way

with a Hippodamian orthogonal grid of streets creating

insulae. Cyprus lost its independence in the beginning

of the 3

century BC, when it was incorporated into the

Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt with Nea Paphos becom-

ing a capital of the island. The next change occurred in

58 BC, when it became a part of the Roman Empire. This

political and historical transition did not undermine the

position of Nea Paphos which managed to maintain its

status as a capital with the seat of the Island’s adminis-

trator at least until the middle of the 4

century AD.

The Villa of Theseus, as many other rich Paphian

houses, was built in a residential part of Nea Paphos

called Maloutena located in the southern part of the city

[2, pp. 184–193], [3, pp. 5–23]. This residence however,

denitely stood out from the others: it was the biggest

building from the Roman times built not only in Nea Pa-

phos, but on the entire island. The size of the Villa as well

as its complex layout, rich architectural decoration and

remarkable mosaic oors indicate a unique function of

the residence – it was inhabited by an inuential member

of the provincial elite [4]. According to the older studies

it may even served as a seat the Roman governor of Cy-

prus [5], [6, p. 53], [7, pp. 5, 17, 24, 30], [8, p. 25], while

other researchers perceive Villa as a praetorium [9].

The Villa was erected in accordance with the cardi-

nal directions regarding the general layout of the city,

but its builders ignored the prior Hellenistic street net-

work and insulae: the residence was erected above the

intersections of several streets. Such a location of the

house was possible because in the 2

century AD this

part of the city was destroyed by an earthquake and its

reconstruction did not have to follow the original plan as

the majority of Paphian buildings had fallen into ruins.

As a consequence, the Villa was constructed literally on

the remnants of older houses, among others the so-called

Hellenistic House built in the insula between streets

A, A’, 9 and 10, which is the best examined house among

the buildings on which the Villa was built [10]–[12].

The Villa of Theseus was erected in several phases

[7], [8]

(Fig. 2). The rst started in the beginning of

the 3

century AD: at that time an oblong palace was

designed above the crossroads of streets A and 9 with

The new chronology of the building phases of the Villa of The-

seus was discussed in a paper entitled Late Roman structures of Nea

Paphos (Maloutena) during 3

and 4

centuries AD, public and

private spaces prepared by H. Meyza, M. Dzwoniarek-Konieczna,

B. Lichocka, D. Bagińska, A. Brzozowska-Jawornicka, J. Mikocka,

D. Mroczek, M. Romaniuk and M. Miziołek, and presented by Doctor

Henryk Meyza during the conference “Poles in the Near East 2021” in

June 2021 (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2CCUbRcbs_I&t=73s

[accessed: 15.05.2023]).

Fig. 1. Map of Nea Paphos

(drawing by A. Brzozowska-

Jawornicka on the basis of

[2, p. 162, Fig. 16], [7, p. 37,

Fig. 1]; retrieved from Google

Earth on 5.10.2014)

Il. 1. Mapa Nea Pafos (rys.

A. Brzozowska-Jawornicka

na podstawie [2, s. 162,

Fig. 16], [7, s. 37, Fig. 1];

podkład z Google Earth,

5.10.2014)

Prothyron from the Villa of Theseus 21

its monumental façade with a great portico facing north.

The second phase of the Villa construction took place

in the 4

century when the rectangle portico-palace was

transformed into the southern wing of the great peri-

style-palace with three new wings erected on the west,

north and east sides of an enormous courtyard. This new

enlarged Villa bears traces of all the typical attributes of

a public residence of a Roman Emperor’s ocial rep-

resentative or a member of a local elite and therefore is

identied as a villa publica or a palatium [5], [6, p. 53],

[7, pp. 5, 17, 24, 30], [8, p. 25].

The eastern wing of the enlarged Villa of Theseus

closed street B since the residence covered the inter-

section of streets 9 and B (Figs. 1, 2). The latter was

one of the most important in that part of the city as

it connected the residential Maloutena region in the

west with the Paphian harbour on the east. The Villa’s

eastern wing created most probably a monumental clos-

ing of street B with the main gate of the palace being

a spatial dominant. It seems reasonable to assume that

this entrance should have been equipped with some

architectural decoration, since it served as one of the

most important public zones of the residence where, as

mentioned above, the owner of the Villa, most proba-

bly a Paphian elite representative of a high-rank, could

have demonstrated his social and political status via ar-

chitectural means [13, pp. 47, 57].

Entrance zone of the Villa of Theseus

The main gate of the Villa of Theseus was planned on

the axis of street B in the central part of the palace’s east-

ern wing. The entrance zone was designed across the whole

width of the wing, behind which a great peristyle stretched.

As mentioned above, the entry sector served as a public

space, where the numerous clientele of the Villa’s owner

waited for permission to step into the palace [14, pp. 90–92].

The residence’s entrance zone was designed as a set of

compartments playing dierent roles and placed one after

another en suite with an east–west axis (Figs. 3, 4). From

the side of the street, the entrance was highlighted most

probably by a porch, which is the main topic of this paper,

discussed in detail below. After crossing the gate, the visitor

entered the vestibule (no. 69), which was designed as an

elongated room with shorter sides terminated by two apses.

The axis of the vestibule runs north–south, i.e., crosswise

to the extended axis of street B coinciding with the main

axis of the whole entrance zone. The presence of bench-

es proves that the room served as a waiting area for the

guests before they were admitted to the following parts

of the entrance. The vestibule was connected with three

further rooms. The main one (Nos. 71, 72) placed on the

east-west axis of the entrance zone constituted a crucial

element of every Roman residence: an atrium with four

columns supporting a roof with a compluvium from which

Fig. 2. Plan of the Villa of Theseus with a marked entrance zone (source: PCMA archives)

Il. 2. Plan Willi Tezeusza z zaznaczoną strefą wejściową (źródło: archiwa PCMA)

22 Aleksandra Brzozowska-Jawornicka

water was led to an impluvium [13, pp. 18–19]. The other

two rooms (Nos. 91 and 93) connected with the vestibule

were designed on both sides of the atrium. Most probably

they served the Villa’s guards who checked the incomers.

The complex entrance zone was completed with a kind

of a nymphaeum placed on the opposite side of the atri-

um to the vestibule, behind which the already mentioned

grand peristyle was located [7, pp. 37, 41, 42, 44, 62, 63],

[8, pp. 35, 36]. Clients proceeded further through the east-

ern and then southern porticos to rooms 39–40, which con-

stituted the main reception hall on an axis perpendicular to

the entrance.

Similarly to the whole Villa of Theseus, its entrance

zone was preserved only to the level of the lower layers

of blocks in the walls including splendid mosaic oors

which became a kind of hallmark of the Paphian residenc-

es. The columns from the atrium lost the upper parts of

their shafts together with the capitals. Some traces of nu-

merous small apses and niches in the walls, where most

probably statues originally stood, suggest that the Villa’s

entrance zone was richly equipped with sculptures

Such a state of preservation hinders creating a com-

plete reconstruction of the Villa’s entrance. However, the

thickness of the walls up to 1 m, much greater than the

walls of the rooms surrounding the entry sector, indi-

cates that it was elevated in relation to the adjacent parts

of the palace. Presumably it was to create a signicant

landmark closing the view of street B and highlighting

the façade of the ocial palace of the local elite repre-

sentative. The main gate of the Villa of Theseus consti-

tuted the central point of that elevation and unquestion-

ably required an appropriate architectural frame.

Selected literature concerning Paphian sculptures is provided in

the bibliography published in [15, pp. 131–138].

Fig. 3. Entrance zone of the

Villa of Theseus (drawing by

S. Medeksza, source: PCMA

archives) with reconstructed

prothyron (drawing by

A. Brzozowska-Jawornicka)

Il. 3. Strefa wejściowa

Willi Tezeusza (rysunek

S. Medeksza, źródło: archiwa

PCMA) z zrekonstruowanym

prothyronem (rys.

A. Brzozowska-Jawornicka)

Fig. 4. Entrance zone

of the Villa of Theseus

(photo by M. Jawornicki)

Il. 4. Strefa wejściowa Willi

Tezeusza (fot. M. Jawornicki)

Prothyron from the Villa of Theseus 23

Fig. 5, 6. Fragments of the triangle pediment from the Villa of Theseus

(drawing by A. Brzozowska-Jawornicka, source: PCMA archives)

Il. 5, 6. Fragmenty trójkątnego naczółka z Willi Tezeusza

(rys. A. Brzozowska-Jawornicka, źródło: archiwa PCMA)

Fig. 7. Pieces of architectural decoration from the Villa of Theseus:

a) Fragments of Corinthian capitals); b) Shaft of columns (6, 7) and

a corner cornice (8) (drawing and photo by author, source: PCMA archives)

Il. 7. Detal architektoniczny z Willi Tezeusza: a) Fragmenty głowic

korynckich; b) Trzony kolumn (6, 7) i narożnikowy gzyms (8)

(rys. i fot. A. Brzozowska-Jawornicka, źródło: archiwa PCMA)

Remnants of the main gate of the Villa of Theseus

The position of the main gate leading to the Villa of

Theseus in its nal phase, i.e., the peristyle-palace, leaves

no doubt: it was designed exactly at the axis of street B

running from the harbour of Nea Paphos to Maloutena

(Figs, 3, 4). The gate was placed in the middle of the east-

ern elevation, obviously in the area of the entrance zone

elevated in relation to the surrounding parts of the Villa.

The opening of the gate was 2.65 m wide; its height re-

mains unknown due to the poor condition of the existing

walls. There are neither preserved traces of any architec-

tural features of that gate, e.g., a portal, nor any remnants

of a door which most probably was wooden and therefore

had little chance of being preserved.

The entrance from the street side was preceded by a rect-

angular podium presently preserved only fragmentarily in

the lower layers. Its width, 3.8 m, seems correct and com-

plete, as there are two side edges preserved, but its depth,

2.1 m, remains indeterminate as its outer part is completely

destroyed, similarly to its upper surface. The southern edge

was limited by a row of at plain stone slabs 71 cm wide.

Only two western slabs placed directly next to the outer

eastern wall of the Villa have been preserved (Figs. 3, 4).

As the northern side of the platform has retained a straight

edge, similarly to the southern one, it can be assumed that

there was also a row of now unpreserved stone slabs.

During the excavations in the Late Roman Street,

which runs from north to south between the outer eastern

wall of the Villa of Theseus and the House of Aion (Figs.

3, 4), a set of fragments of architectural decoration was

found in the vicinity of the palace main gate [1, pp. 286,

287, Fig. 3] (Figs. 5, 7). It consisted of eight fragments of

a stone triangular pediment. Five elements belonged orig-

inally to the highest level of the entablature: the cornice

which was 28 cm high, 55 cm deep and protruded 26 cm in

front of the face of the entablature lower part. The mould-

ings of the cornice consisted of (from the top): a corona,

a bevelled ovolo, a cyma recta, an ovolo, a bevelled ovolo,

a cyma recta, an ovolo and another corona. There was also

a complex block from a triangular pediment combining

a corner between two perpendicular horizontal cornices

similar to those discussed above and a fragment of a rak-

ing cornice whose sloping mouldings matched the proles

of the horizontal cornices. One piece constitutes a frag-

ment of the raking cornice with an oblique prole similar

to the one from the raking cornice described above.

The condition of the cornice blocks varies depending

on the element, i.e. the corner cornice is in an excellent

state including preserved outer layer of whitewash; the

raking cornice and the horizontal cornices are damaged

to varying degrees: some are only slightly eroded on the

surface, others have lost signicant parts of their original

volume, including major fragments of their mouldings.

A few fragments of columns excavated earlier in the area

in question matched the pieces of the pediment and the en-

tablature described above: two small fragments of the cor-

ner volutes originally belonging to Corinthian capitals and

two parts of plain column shafts (1. diameter: 53 cm, height:

119 cm; 2. diameter: 60 cm, height: 129 cm) (Fig. 7).

24 Aleksandra Brzozowska-Jawornicka

commonly used in the late antique, Byzantine and Medie-

val times, predominantly often in churches [18].

There were certainly much more imposing forms of

residence’s entrances. Gates leading to Balkan palaces

such as Porta Aurea in the palace of Diocletian in Split

[20, pp. 166–167], [21, pp. 41–42], [22, p. 167], [23] (Fig.

9a) or the West Gate of the Felix Romuliana Palace in

Gamzigrad [24, pp. 143–146], [25, p. 78, Fig. 60], [26, pp.

70, 85, Fig. 11], [21, p. 42] (Fig. 9b) constitute excellent

examples of richly decorated and imposingly designed en-

tries placed in the centre of the whole façade. The centre

of their composition was a monumental door framed with

ornamented jambs and a lintel above which, on the upper

oor, a multi-span arcade was designed. The arcades most

probably covered niches where some kind of sculptural

decoration was placed presumably revealing the residence

owner’s social status.

The remains of architectural decoration from such

a façade were found in the House of Aion also built in

Maloutena, east of the Villa of Theseus [27], [3, pp.

127–129, Figs 6, 7], [28, pp. 691–692], [29, pp. 172–173,

Fig.10]. Their presence in one of the smallest Paphian

houses proves that such imposing gate embellishment

was applied not only in great imperial palaces, but also in

a rather modest, in terms of its size, building whose func-

tion is still discussed: whether it was a private residence

of a provincial family aspiring to the Roman upper-class

or a public building which served as a seat of some kind

of religious society

Selected literature concerning the ongoing discussion about the

nature of the House of Aion: [30]–[32], [6, pp. 13–77], [33]–[42].

All these elements were made of a local stone calca-

renite and covered with a thin layer of whitewash with no

signs of polychrome.

Gates of Roman residences

The most common form of a gate leading to a Roman

house was a simple opening with a single-leaf door in

the case of a more slender outline or a double-leaf door

for wider openings. The exact proportions varied con-

siderably, which can be observed in Pompeian examples

(Fig. 8). The architectural embellishment of such gates

was also very diverse: from simple lintels, through surface

decoration composed of pilasters or half-columns topped

with entablatures or pediments to extensive portals [16,

pp. 294–296, Figs. 670–678].

Another form of a gate known from the Roman archi-

tecture was a prothyron mentioned in the Vitruvian treatise

[17, VI.7.5] and described in detail by Peter Grossmann:

“A prothyron is an open porch supported by two col-

umns in front of the outer doors of a church or other

building. It is thus adiminutive propylaeum or a por-

tico reduced to a single bay (…). The roof, which

is xed to the building wall, maybe a small dome

or a saddleback, and the columns are connected to

each other and the wall by architraves or arches. The

prothyron is generally raised at least one step from

the ground” [18].

The preserved examples of prothyra from private hous-

es are rare, but there are some traces of one, e.g., in Kom

el-Dikka in Alexandria, where many houses from the Ro-

man times were found [19, p. 33]. Such a form was more

Fig. 8. Pompeian gates: a) a gate from the 2

century BC; b) a gate from the House of the Faun from the 2

century BC;

c) a gate from the House of Julia Felix from the second half of the 1

century BC (source: [16, p. 294, Figs. 670–672])

Il. 8. Bramy pompejańskie: a) brama z II w. p.n.e.; b) brama z Domu Fauna z II w. p.n.e.;

c) brama z Domu Julii Felix z drugiej połowy I w. p.n.e. (źródło: [16, s. 294, il. 670–672])

Prothyron from the Villa of Theseus 25

Reconstruction of the main gate

of the Villa of Theseus

As described above, the form of a gate of a Roman res-

idence might have been very diverse: from quite simple

designs, like a door framed with a plain portal, to very

richly decorated and complex spatial arrangements like

great gates of the imperial palaces.

The number of elements that formed the basis for the

reconstruction of the Villa of Theseus main gate is limited

which precludes establishing unambiguously all its archi-

tectural features. The only denite assumptions that can

be made on the basis of preserved remains are:

1. The door was preceded by a rectangular platform

elevated by a few to several centimetres in relation

to the level of street B and limited on the sides by

the rows of stone slabs, presumably stylobates sup-

porting the porch.

2. This platform constituted a podium inside a kind

of a porch.

3. The porch was anked by Corinthian columns.

4. The supports were topped with a triangle pediment.

Basing on the above data and assumptions, dier-

ent reconstructions can be proposed. However, it seems

reasonable to assume that the simplest and most obvious

design is at the same time the most probable one: the plat-

form in front of the gate could have been a podium inside

a two-column porch protruding from the face of the Vil-

la’s outer wall and crowned with a triangle pediment. If

we compare such a form with the types of Roman gates

listed above, the description of a prothyron matches per-

fectly the form that could have formed the main gate of

the Villa of Theseus. All the features of a prothyron spec-

ied by Grossmann can be traced in the preserved rem-

nants described above and moreover this denition gives

us a hint regarding the missing parts of the porch and its

construction, e.g., its roof or the connection between the

porch and the Villa’s wall.

As mentioned above, the upper surface and the full outline

of the podium are unknown, but it seems reasonable to as-

sume that it could have been paved with, e.g., stone slabs and

extended further than the preserved fragments of underlay.

The size of the Villa’s prothyron can be established on

the basis of the analysis of the columns fragments. The

corner volutes originally belonging to Corinthian capi-

tals and the two parts of the plain column shafts revealed

the order and the scale of the missing supports: Corinthi-

an columns measuring around 5.8 m if we assume that

they were designed according to a classical canon known

among others from the Vitruvian treatise [17, p. 4.1.1].

The intercolumniation is obviously unknown, as

there are no traces of the columns’ position due to the

destruction of the podium. The span of porch can only

be reconstructed theoretically and in great approxima-

tion on the basis of one aesthetic assumption and two

construction premises.

The visual aspect requires leaving some free space be-

tween the door opening and the prothyron, i.e., the latter

should not have obscured the door, but it should have en-

closed it creating a proper architectural frame.

The rst technical issue concerns the foundations of the

prothyron. There are no signs of columns’ bases on the po-

dium which also appears too delicate to support a massive

prothyron. It seems much more probable that it was placed

outside the podium and stood at the stone stylobates, of

which the southern one is partially preserved.

The second technical issue is related to the depen-

dence between the type of the structural element that

was resting on the columns, its span (i.e., the inter-

Fig. 9. a) Porta Aurea at the palace of Diocletian in Split (source: [47]);

b) West Gate of the Felix Romuliana Palace in Gamzigrad (source: [23, p. 197, Fig. 8])

Il. 9. a) Porta Aurea z Pałacu Dioklecjana w Splicie (źródło: [47]);

b) Zachodnia Brama z Pałacu Felix Romuliana Palace w Gamzigradzie (źródło: [23, s. 197, il. 8])

26 Aleksandra Brzozowska-Jawornicka

columniation), and the material from which it was

made. According to the quoted denition of a prothy-

ron, the columns were usually “connected to each other

and the wall by architraves or arches” [18]. No frag-

ments of any stone architrave, voussoirs or an arch as

well as wooden beams that could be associated with

the reconstructed porch were found. The studies of oth-

er Paphian residences indicate that the use of wood-

en architraves was natural and logical in the area rich

in good quality construction timber, and therefore it

seems common [43, pp. 64–69], [10, pp. 104–108, Figs.

6, 7], [11]. The assumption that the architraves in the

porch were made of wood seems convincing and it also

explains the lack of preserved elements. Firstly, ancient

wood in the Cypriot climate would not have lasted till

present times (with very rare exceptions). Secondly, it

was a very valuable material that was immediately re-

trieved from rubble of the buildings destroyed, e.g., by

an earthquake. So, after the destruction or gradual de-

cline of the Villa of Theseus, which occurred after its -

nal expansion, all the valuable and obtainable elements

were removed from the debris and probably re-used in

subsequent edices [44, p. 24].

If we assume that the columns of the prothyron were

covered with architraves made of wooden beams, their

size and length depended on two factors: rstly the spac-

ing of the columns and secondly the weight resting on

them. These two factors are also interdependent: the lon-

ger the intercolumniation, the greater the burden of the

pediment and roof lying on the architraves.

As mentioned above, the size of the podium is unknown

(except for the preserved fragment 3.8 m × 2.1 m), but

we do know the width of the opening of the gate: 2.65 m.

Based on this, the approximate height of the door can be

estimated on the basis of, e.g., the Vitruvian treatise or

existing analogies.

Vitruvius indicated two principles concerning the

proportion of the door. Firstly, the height of the door de-

pended on the height of the room to which the door led.

Unfortunately, due to the poor state of preservation, the

height of the vestibule is unknown and therefore cannot

serve as a reference point for the door height. Secondly,

regardless of the preferred order, Doric or Ionic, if the door

is designed in accordance with another Vitruvian princi-

ple, the opening would have been of slender proportions:

1 to 2.23 for the Doric order or 1 to 2.58 for the Ionic one

[17, pp. IV.6.3–6, VI.3.6] (Fig. 10). If we apply those pro-

portions to the main gate of the Villa of Theseus, we re-

ceive an opening 5.9 m or 6.83 m high for the Doric or the

Ionic order respectively – both values much bigger than the

height of the Corinthian columns from the prothyron. Such

a composition seems highly unlikely and indirectly proves

that the architectural rules from the Vitruvian treatise do

not apply to all cases. They may reect an ideal design of

buildings of various types, but in reality not every aspect of

existing architecture fallowed those rules. This phenome-

non is conrmed by the previously mentioned examples of

doors from the houses in Pompeii. In the author’s opinion,

the selective application of classical principles is particu-

larly visible in the provinces located on the fringes of the

Roman Empire, where, e.g., columns were designed in ac-

cordance with classical canon, but the whole structure they

were part of did not follow those rules. Examples of such

an approach are present even among the Paphian residence

– for instance the porticoes of the already mentioned Hel-

lenistic House [10, p. 100, Fig. 5], [11].

In the case of the reconstruction of the Villa main door,

one Pompeian example seems to provide a good analo-

gy despite some major dierences. The door framed with

half-columns topped with a triangle pediment from the

House of Julia Felix [16, p. 294, Fig. 672] (Fig. 8c) forms

a design similar to the general idea of a prothyron. It is

Fig. 11. Reconstruction of the prothyron from the main gate

of the Villa of Theseus (drawing by A. Brzozowska-Jawornicka)

Il. 11. Rekonstrukcja prothyronu głównej bramy

Willi Tezeusza (rys. A. Brzozowska-Jawornicka)

Fig. 10. Door composed according to the Vitruvian principles (source: [17])

Il. 10. Drzwi zgodne z zasadami Witruwiańskimi (źródło: [17])

Prothyron from the Villa of Theseus 27

worth emphasizing that in that case it is not a spatial struc-

ture, but rather a surface decoration. The material consti-

tutes a signicant dierence between the Pompeian and

Paphian gates: the rst one is made of brick; the second

one was carved out of stone. Applying a at brick arch

instead of an architrave constitutes another dierence.

The proportions of the gate opening from the House

of Julia Felix do not seem to t to those from the Vil-

la of Theseus gate: the Pompeian opening is too wide.

However, the concept of half-columns crowned with

a pediment framing the door may give us a general hint

about this architectural composition: the frame should

encircle the opening with a certain distance to ensure

an appropriate aesthetic eect. With this approach the

combination of one known and one estimated value,

the width of the opening and the height of the columns,

may lead to a theoretical reconstruction of the gate’s

form and proportions. In order to ensure the appropri-

ate distance between the columns and the gate opening,

their intercolumniation measures 4.65 m leaving around

70 cm between the supports and the edge of the door.

Such a span of the reconstructed prothyron matches

perfectly the position of the preserved fragment of the

stylobate on the south side of the podium, where the

columns could have stood.

The bottom surface of the architrave constitutes the

upper edge of the frame enclosing the door. The epistyle

rests on the columns, so its position above the podium

equals the columns height: 5.8 m. To ensure the appropri-

ate distance between the architrave and the top edge of the

gate opening, the latter is 4.85 m above the podium oor.

There are no traces of any jamb, so it is not presented in

the reconstruction, but it seems highly probable that the

gate was equipped with some kind of architectural deco-

ration, like, e.g., proled jambs and a lintel. The distance

between the gate and the prothyron provides enough space

for such an embellishment. No remnants of the door have

survived, so its form, material and type are unknown.

Judging by the size of the gate opening, a double-leaf door

seems more probable.

Having established the estimated size and propor-

tions of the door, let us return to the reconstruction of the

prothyron. The length of the wooden architrave resting on

the supports is approximately determined at 5.10 m. Its

cross-section depended on the weight of the triangle ped-

iment and roof which rested on the beam. The classical

entablature was composed of three elements: an architrave,

a frieze and a cornice. However, there are many known

examples of ancient buildings, most often secular in na-

ture, in which the superstructure had no frieze [45, pp. 12,

13], [46, p. 25, Pl. VIIIA]. As no fragments that could be

associated with the frieze of the prothyron were found, we

assumed that the triangle pediment was intentionally de-

signed in a simplied manner without this central section.

Resignation from the frieze gives a signicant reduction

of the weight resting on the architrave and translates into

its smaller cross-section. It means the possibility of using

smaller beams which can be considered an advantageous

solution in terms of an easier acquisition of the necessary

wood (a log with a smaller diameter means a smaller tree)

and reduction in the cost. So, the architrave would have

been loaded only with the pediment and the roof covering

the prothyron, if it was present.

The fragments of the horizontal and raking cornices

permit recreating the form of the triangle pediment. The

raking cornice turned out to be crucial for the reconstruc-

tion of the pediment as it allowed us to establish the angle

between the ranking cornice and the entablature at 25

Knowing the intercolumniation and the angle of the rak-

ing cornice, we could recreate the entire pediment: it was

almost 5.7 m wide and 1.65 m high (Fig. 11).

A triangle surface of the wall called a tympanum was

placed in the centre of the pediment between its cornices.

Usually tympana were decorated with sculptural embel-

lishment. Unfortunately, in the case of the Villa’s prothy-

ron, no pieces that could be unambiguously identied as

fragments of a tympanum were found. It could have also

been plain, without any decoration, although it seems like-

ly that the main entrance to the biggest Roman residence

on Cyprus should have been emphasised not only by ar-

chitectural means, e.g., a prothyron, but also by appropri-

ate sculptural decoration, the more so that the dimensions

of the tympanum in question were imposing: it was almost

5 m wide and nearly 1.2 m high.

The only missing information of the prothyron recon-

struction is its depth. It could have been designed as an al-

most surface decoration with columns standing very close

to the wall. This type of practically surface embellishment,

although not exactly a prothyron, can be observed in the

case of, e.g., the gate leading to the Temple of Romulus in

Rome, presently the basilica of Santi Cosma e Damiano,

where free standing columns topped with an entablature

stand very close to the temple walls. The prothyron of the

Villa of Theseus could have also protruded in front of the

face of the wall, creating a covered porch protecting the

guests waiting to enter the palace against sun and rain.

The porch from the Modena Cathedral constitutes a good

example of such a design, typical for the later prothyra

from the medieval churches.

The second variant of the prothyron depth seems much

more likely as the preserved fragments of the podium

in front of the Villa of Theseus are 2.1 m deep. It forms

sucient space to create a classic prothyron with a roof

sheltering from rain and sun. As written above, the poor

state of the preserved remnants of the podium prevents es-

tablishing the position of the columns, so the reconstruct-

ed distance between them and the wall, which denes the

porch depth, is purely hypothetical. Since no information

is available that could be helpful in estimating this value,

2 m distance was arbitrarily taken.

As Peter Grossmann wrote, the prothyra could have

been roofed or covered with a small dome [18]. Since

some pieces of a raking cornice were found, the rst

variant with a gable roof of a shape corresponding to the

form of the triangle pediment seems convincing. The roof

could have been made of wooden roof trusses covered

with plain stone slabs or ceramic roof tiles. Lack of their

remains is not surprising as the wooden beams, like in the

case of architraves and slabs or tiles were often re-used in

the subsequent buildings.

28 Aleksandra Brzozowska-Jawornicka

The architraves linking the columns and walls were

anchored in the latter stiening the entire prothyron. The

blocks of cornice rested on the epistyles. The horizontal

cornices placed on the architraves xed to the walls most

probably served as the basis for the triangle roof trusses

covered with stone slabs, shown in the hypothetical recon-

struction (Fig. 11), or tiles.

After establishing all the obtainable information about

the prothyron form and size, the cross-section of its archi-

trave could be calculated on the basis of the weight of the

triangle pediment, horizontal transverse cornices and roof.

Mr Mieczysław Michiewicz, a civil engineer who calculat-

ed all these factors, checked several types of loadings (trans-

verse, axial, torsional) and stress (compressive stress, shear

stress, bending) and established the optimal cross-section

of a beam made of cedar wood, as such trees were common

on Cyprus in antiquity. The calculations proved that a cedar

beam of a minimal cross-section of 28 × 37 cm could have

born the weight of the stone entablature and triangle pedi-

ment as well as a wooden roof and its covering.

The cross-section of the architrave was the last missing

piece of information needed for the theoretical reconstruc-

tion of the porch sheltering the main gate of the Villa of

Theseus. If the assumptions presented above are correct,

it would have taken the form of a prothyron equipped with

a Corinthian columns crowned with wooden architraves

supporting a triangle pediment and wooden roof covered

with stone slabs (Fig. 11) or ceramic tiles.

Summary and conclusions

In every Roman house serving not only as a private

home for a family, but also as a public residence, the ocial

areas designed for performing the formal duties and activ-

ities of the owner required appropriate architectural layout

and decoration underlining the political and social position

of the master of the house. Beside the main courtyard and

the audience hall, the entry sector was one of the most im-

portant spaces [14], [13, pp. 1–6, 18, 19, 28, 29, 36–39,

58–60, 77]. The entrance zone served not only as a point

of entry, where the guards decided whether to let potential

visitors in or to keep them outside, but it was also a kind

of the owner’s “show-o” on the threshold of the house

manifesting the position or the aspirations of the owner and

his family via architectural and sometimes also sculptural

means. The location of the residence main gate was also

crucial in terms of at least two aspects: its functionality and

prestige. Both required placing the entrance in the most sig-

nicant possible position in the context of the residence’s

surroundings: e.g., next to the main street or a public square

[12, pp. 44, 45]. Firstly such a location facilitated access to

a residence serving as a seat of the ocial, and secondly

it accentuated the importance and status of its owner who

could have aorded to build his residence in the most pres-

tigious and therefore expensive area of the city.

All the listed features of the entrance zone and the

main gate of a Roman residence were present in the Vil-

la of Theseus, a residence in a type of a villa publica

or a palatium [5], [6, pp. 53], [7, pp. 5, 17, 24, 30],

[8, p. 25]. Its complex entry sector was composed of

several rooms including a vestibule and an atrium lead-

ing to a grand peristyle. Such a monumental design

constitutes a classical arrangement evidently imitating

the architecture of the Roman imperial palaces. The ex-

panded Villa closed one of the Nea Paphos main roads,

street B, which connected the residential area Maloute-

na with the Paphian harbour. Designing Villa on the axis

of the street accentuated both, the street and the palace:

the rst one by its closure with one of the most signi-

cant city buildings, and the second one by placing it at

the end of one of the main city roads. Such a position

of the Villa was strengthened by its main gate situated

along the axis of the street [7, pp. 5, 6, 24–26, 34, 41],

[8, p. 35]. The monumental entrance, higher than the

adjacent parts of the palace, constituted a strong archi-

tectural accent dominating both the palace of a rather

horizontal arrangement, and the street surrounded by

lower buildings. The main gate formed the central point

of the composition and required an appropriate archi-

tectural frame. The remains of the gate discovered in

situ as well as the fragments found in the vicinity of

the entrance zone suggest that the gate could have been

originally preceded by a monumental porch in the form

of a Corinthian prothyron.

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Prothyron from the Villa of Theseus 29

Streszczenie

Prothyron z Willi Tezeusza w Nea Paphos na Cyprze

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