Architecture and building technology of the 16th-century half-timbered church in Byków

Ulrich Schaaf, Maciej Prarat, Daria Jagiełło, Magdalena Kumorowicz-Brzeska

doi:10.37190/arc250204

Abstract

In 2022, architectural research was conducted on the former evangelical church, now the Church of Our Lady of the Rosary in Byków (Długołęka commune, Wrocław district), dating to 1574. Over the following centuries, the church underwent significant expansion and reconstruction that dramatically changed its form.

The article presents the results of the conducted research regarding the original form of the church, particularly the building technique used in the 16th century and reconstruction of its probable appearance after construction. The research covered the structural system, type of building material used and its processing, connection methods and the system of carpentry assembly marks, applied carpentry joints, as well as the material used to fill the frame fields and its coloring.

Based on these findings, it was established that the original church was built in half-timbered construction, consisting of a nave section and an elongated, three-sided closed choir to the east and a tower to the west. The nave and choir were covered with gabled roofs with collar beam trusses. A large part of this construction has been preserved in the current structure of the church.

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2(82)

Ulrich Schaaf*, Maciej Prarat**, Daria Jagiełło***,

Magdalena Kumorowicz-Brzeska****

Architecture and building technology

of the 16

-century half-timbered church in Byków

DOI: 10.37190/arc250204

Published in open access. CC BY NC ND license

Abstract

An architectural survey of the former Evangelical church, now the Church of Our Lady of the Rosary, in Byków (Długołęka municipality,

Wrocław district) was conducted in 2022. Its erection dates back to 1574. The church underwent signicant expansion and reconstruction in the

following centuries, which dramatically changed its form.

The purpose of this article is to present the results of this research with regard to the original form of the church, particularly the construction

technique used in the 16

century, and to reconstruct its probable form when it was erected. The research covered the structural layout, the type of

building material used and its fabrication, the timber framing sides and the system of carpentry assembly marks, the carpentry joints used, and the

material used to ll the elds of the framework and its colours.

Based on these, the authors were able to determine that the original church was erected in a timber-frame construction and consisted of a nave and

an elongated, trilateral closed choir on the east and a tower on the west. The corpus and choir were covered with gabled roofs with king post trusses.

Much of this structure has been preserved in the present church structure.

Key words: church, 16

century, framework construction, architectural research, Byków

Introduction

The construction of the church in Byków dates back to

1574. The church at that time is described in sources as

a single-nave, half-timbered structure (Anders 1867). To-

day’s church is a building with brick perimeter walls, a hall

structure, on a rectangular plan: three-aisles with matronea

integrated with the side aisles, a single-storey structure,

with a choir enclosed from the north and south by a pair

of auxiliary rooms, covered with a gable roof, with a tower

surmounted with a spire with an octagonal lantern. Its roof

structure is a single-collar beam type with double-standing

truss. The narrower side aisles are separated by single rows

of columns supporting richly decorated matronea, which

in the choir section turn into former patrons’ boxes; in the

western part of the main nave, there is an organ matrone-

um. In 2009, the church was entered into the register of

historical monuments

(Fig. 1).

At the request of the Lower Silesian Voivodeship Con -

servator of Monuments, in 2022 a measurement and draw-

ing inventory

(reasearch base; Jagiełło, Kumorowicz-

Brze s ka 2022) and architectural research of the church

were carried out. Their aim was to identify the building

hi story of the church, mainly in its 16

-century shape and

con struction (Schaaf et al. 2022)

. The substantive scope

The church was entered into the register of monuments under the

number A/1380 by the decision of the Lower Silesian Voivodeship Con-

servator of Monuments of 26 October 2009 (Narodowy Instytut Dzie -

dzictwa… 2024).

We would like to thank the Parish of St. Michael the Archangel

in Długołęka for making the building available and the Lower Silesian

* ORCID: 0000-0003-3055-1009. Faculty of Fine Arts, Nico-

laus Copernicus University in Toruń, Poland.

** ORCID: 0000-0001-7076-2009. Faculty of Fine Arts, Nico-

laus Copernicus University in Toruń, Poland.

*** ORCID: 0000-0002-4437-0551. Faculty of Fine Arts, Nico-

laus Copernicus University in Toruń, Poland, e-mail: dar.jag@umk.pl

**** ORCID: 0009-0001-6534-343X. Faculty of Fine Arts, Nico-

laus Copernicus University in Toruń, Poland.

36 Ulrich Schaaf, Maciej Prarat, Daria Jagiełło, Magdalena Kumorowicz-Brzeska

structure (Brzezicki et al. 2006; Donath et al. 2012). The

church was captured by Friedrich Bernhard Werner (1754)

in a drawing showing the palace with Baron Haugwitz’s

garden of 1754) (Fig. 2). The 19

-century works are men-

tioned in the Files of the Conservator of Monuments of

the Province of Lower Silesia (Archiwum Państwowe…

ref. no. 1172) – the following were enumerated: replacing

the half-timbered construction of the walls with bricks and

changing/reconstructing the roof

. The authors make the

reservation, however, that the research in question did not

include a full archival search. The history of the church

and the parish is presented in more detail in Dzieje gmi-

ny Długołęka [History of the Commune of Długołęka] by

Zbigniew Fras (1998), although the information contained

in the publication does not contribute anything new to the

subject of the construction history of the church.

Outline history

The rst mention of a church located in the town of Peu -

ke (today’s Byków) dates back to 1385 (Brzezicki et al.

2006). It was a wooden construction, with a form not spe-

cically described in the literature on the subject (Hultsch

1977). In 1538, the Reformation was introduced in the

villages belonging to the Duchy of Ziębice and Oleśnica

(Ziębice-Oleśnica), on whose territory Peuke was located

(Hultsch 1977).

The current church (Donath et al. 2012) is a layered

construction which has undergone numerous and quite sig-

nicant changes in the subsequent years of its operation.

Its building history can be divided into four main phases.

We would like to thank Dr. Grzegorz Grajewski for providing his

extracts from the Files of the Conservator of Monuments of the Province

of Lower Silesia.

Fig. 1. Church of Our Lady

of the Rosary in Byków,

southern elevation,

view towards the north-west

(photo by M. Prarat, 2022)

Il. 1. Kościół pw. Matki Bożej

Różańcowej w Bykowie,

elewacja południowa, widok

w kierunku północno-zachodnim

(fot. M. Prarat, 2022)

included, rst of all, the analysis of the existing material

substance of wooden structures. The conclusions drawn

were compared with knowledge about the church’s con-

struction history, which made a chronological stratication

of the building possible.

In this article, the authors of the aforementioned doc-

umentation will present the results of the conducted re-

search, including the reconstruction of the original appear-

ance of the church (the form at the time of construction)

and the characteristics of the construction technique used

at that time, which was analysed in terms of the structural

system, the type of building material used and its process-

ing, the sides of timber framing and the system of carpen-

try assembly marks, the carpentry joints used, and the ma-

terial used to ll the panels and its colour.

Reconstruction is based on the existing historical sub-

stance, the results of analyses enabling the reconstruction

of historical solutions, and, in cases where there were no

other premises, on the search for analogies among build-

ings of similar date and nature, and in a related area of

inuence.

State of research

The history of the church, including its construction,

has not been the subject of in-depth research so far. Infor-

mation about the history of its construction is mostly limit-

ed to date notes referring to the time of construction, reno-

vation, or extension (sometimes ambiguous: Anders 1867;

1886; Hultsch 1977)

and short notes characterizing the

Voivodeship Conservator of Monuments for enabling architectural re-

search.

In individual texts, the year 1574 is associated with the “construc-

tion or renovation” of an earlier church (see: Anders 1848).

Architecture and building technology of the 16

-century half-timbered church in Byków 37

The rst was the construction of the church – at that time

it had a single nave, a tower, and a three-sided closed choir

(a detailed description will be presented further in the text).

Owing to the reduction in the number of Protestant

churches in the Duchy of Wrocław, from 1662, the Byków

church served as a refuge church for the faithful deprived

of their own church (in areas where freedom of religion

did not apply) and for the local Evangelical community

(Anders 1867; 1848; Hultsch 1977). The general renovation

of the church is dated to 1693 (Anders 1867; 1848; Donath

et al. 2012), including external renovation (Hultsch 1977).

Owing to the increased needs resulting from the above-

mentioned reduction, in 1702 the church was expanded

with wooden side galleries and patrons’ lodges (Anders

1867; 1848; Brzezicki et al. 2006)

. The rich polychrome

interior also dates back to 1702 – probably by Karol

Homann (Brzezicki et al. 2006). According to records, in

1720, work was carried out on the church tower (Donath et

al. 2012)

most likely coming down to the putting of a new

helmet on it and casting a new, larger bell from the old one

(Anders 1848; 1867).

century sources document subsequent events in

the history of the church and the church itself, including

its good state of preservation

in 1825; renovation of the

roof/roof covering (Bedachung) – 1829, or damage to part

of the roof and bell structure and the hanging of a new bell

– 1839 (Archiwum Państwowe… ref. no. 1172). In the years

1846–1852 the frame structure of the peripheral walls was

replaced with a massive brick wall and the interiors were

plastered (Anders 1867; Brzezicki et al. 2006; Donath et al.

2012). According to the information contained in the Files

of the Conservator of Monuments of the Province of Lower

Silesia, in addition the roof was rebuilt and the tower was

The need for expansion is also mentioned by Gerhard Hultsch (1977).

Also known as “tower elevation”, see: (Brzezicki et al. 2006).

Indicated date of construction: 1664 [!].

straightened. Future plans include partial repairs to the

ceilings, construction of pews, repairs to the altar, construction

of doors and windows, as well as the construction of the

organ matroneum (Archiwum Państwowe… ref. no. 1172).

The wooden structure of the tower in its upper part remained

unchanged (Hultsch 1977).

The building history of the church in the 2

half of the

century and in the 20

century is not rich. Shortly

after the renovation, in 1858, the church was damaged by

lightning. Four years later, the archives noted the need to

replace the roof covering on the north side, which was to take

place a year later (Archiwum Państwowe… ref. no. 1172).

Therefore, the last phase is related to the period of 20

century repairs and additions, mainly observed in the area of

the structure and tower

. It seems that those activities were

carried out rather ad hoc, never having a clear im pact on

the form or structural arrangement of the preserved church

structures. In 1945, the church was taken over by Catho-

lics and the Evangelical parish was liquidated. Currently, it

serves as a branch church of the Roman Catholic parish of

St. Michael the Archangel in Długołęka (Fig. 3).

The original structure and building technique

of the church

The original church was built on a plan consisting of

a rectangular nave and located on a longitudinal axis: an

elongated choir with a three-sided ending from the east,

narrower than the nave, and a square tower from the west.

It was a church with a half-timbered construction, with the

panels lled with clay on staves and a timber-clad upper

part of the tower constituting an integral element of the

Detailed research results expanding the existing knowledge on

the building history of the church (including information not included

in this chapter on the subsequent (II to IV) building phases) are includ-

ed in the author’s documentation (Schaaf et al. 2022).

Fig. 2. Church of Our Lady

of the Rosary in Byków

depicted in a fragment

of a drawing by Friedrich Werner

from a publication published

in the mid-18

century

(source: Werner 1754)

Il. 2. Kościół pw. Matki Bożej

Różańcowej w Bykowie

przedstawiony na fragmencie

rysunku Friedricha Wernera

pochodzącym z publikacji

wydanej w połowie XVIII w.

(źródło: Werner 1754)

38 Ulrich Schaaf, Maciej Prarat, Daria Jagiełło, Magdalena Kumorowicz-Brzeska

The dimensions of the nave body were 10.50 m long

and 7.80 m wide. The choir, 5 m long, was narrower, its

width in the western part is 5 m, in the extreme eastern part

it is estimated at 2.60 m. The tower was built on a plan of

3.60 × 3.60 m.

Structural layout

The nave and choir were built as a half-timbered con-

struction: it consisted of posts and studs running from the

ground plate, through the entire height of the, to the up-

body of the church: its eastern wall and the western wall

of the nave formed one structure. The nave and the choir

were closed with gable roofs with a signicant angle of

inclination of about 65°. The original form of the tower’s

coping is unknown

In order to maintain the readability of the text, the authors have

decided to use consistently the past tense in reference to the reconstruct-

ed original form, and the present tense in the analysis of the construction

technique conducted solely on the basis of preserved elements, some-

times with limited access or few in number.

Fig. 4. Church of Our Lady of the Rosary in Byków,

reconstruction of the original form of the church (16

century),

ground floor plan at window level

(elaborated by M. Kumorowicz-Brzeska, U. Schaaf, M. Prarat, D. Jagiełło)

1l. 4. Kościół pw. Matki Bożej Różańcowej w Bykowie – rekonstrukcja pierwotnej formy kościoła (XVI w.),

rzut przyziemia na poziomie okien

(oprac. M. Kumorowicz-Brzeska, U. Schaaf, M. Prarat, D. Jagiełło)

Fig. 3. Church of Our Lady

of the Rosary in Byków,

chronological stratification

of the church, projection

at the level of the entablature

(elaborated by

M. Kumorowicz-Brzeska,

U. Schaaf, M. Prarat, D. Jagiełło)

Il. 3. Kościół pw. Matki Bożej

Różańcowej w Bykowie,

rozwarstwienie chronologiczne

kościoła, rzut na poziomie

belkowania

(oprac. M. Kumorowicz-Brzeska,

U. Schaaf, M. Prarat, D. Jagiełło)

Architecture and building technology of the 16

-century half-timbered church in Byków 39

per plate, between which four rows of rails were stretched,

creating a regular lattice with square panels. Additional sti-

ening was provided by braces and passing braces (Fig. 4).

The body consisted of two longitudinal frames (north

and south) and transverse frames: two main ones (east and

west) and three internal frames providing additional sti-

ening.

The longitudinal frames were created analogously

The structure of both included ve posts (spacing

2.35–

2.65 m), located at regular intervals, and two studs were

placed between them (spacing approx. 0.85–0.90 m).

The frame was stiened at the top and bottom with pairs

of passing braces, in the lower part inclined inwards

Examination of internal bonds was impossible owing to the

covering of the half-timbered elements with boards, which is why their

documented dimensions and identied carpentry joints were illustrated

with single examples. On these, and on the clear spacing of posts and the

course of rails despite the covering, the structure was identied and con-

clusions were drawn with regard to delamination and nal reconstruction.

Unless otherwise stated, the spacing of elements is given in their

axes.

For a pair of braces/passing braces located within one panel

(from post to post), the “outside” arrangement means a pair of elements

connected at the bottom to the rail/ground plate/upper plate etc., at the

top to the posts, while the “inside” arrangement means the elements are

connected at the bottom to the posts, and at the top – to the rail/ground

plate/upper plate, etc. For a pair of braces/passing brace located within

two adjacent panels, the “outside” arrangement means that the element

is connected to the post at the bottom and to the rail/ground plate/upper

plate etc. at the top, while the “inside” arrangement means that the ele-

ment is connected to the rail/ground plate/upper plate etc. at the bottom

and to the post at the top.

(ground plate–rail 1–main post), and in the upper part, in-

clined outwards (main post–rail 4–upper plate)

. The re-

con struction of the original layout was possible thanks to

the preserved large sections of walls – timber-clad and

con stituting internal wall bonds in the nave body. On the

basis of the known analogous solutions of similar dating

it can be assumed that in the central eld of each bay there

were single window openings, closed at the top in seg-

ments, with a height slightly lower than the height of two

frame elds

(Fig. 5).

Plastering and re-bricklaying made possible only partial

reconstruction of the original form of the eastern frame of

the body. It consisted of four posts: two corner ones and

an inner pair framing the choir (the distance between the

corner and inner posts was about 1.40 m)

. The rails were

located at a level above the rails of the longitudinal frame

(carpenters used this procedure so as not to weaken the el-

ement by cutting a pair of carpenter’s mortises at the same

Such stiening was used, among others, in churches in Pracze

Odrzańskie (1550), Świniary (1570), and Godzięcin (1583).

Similar solutions can be found in the churches mentioned in

footnote 17 or in Swojczyce in Wrocław (1537).

Owing to limited availability of elements it was not possible to

determine the location and form of the original door opening(s). Analo-

gies can be found in, among others, the solutions used in the non-existent

Salvator Church in Wrocław (1561).

The northern post is currently cut o at a height of about 90 cm,

and the southern one – probably preserved in the wall structure, is par-

tially visible in the southern room near the choir. The middle pair is

probably preserved under plaster in the upper part of the frame (matro-

neum level).

Fig. 5. Church of Our Lady

of the Rosary in Byków,

reconstruction of the original

form of the church (16

century),

northern elevation (elaborated by

M. Kumorowicz-Brzeska,

U. Schaaf, M. Prarat, D. Jagiełło)

Il. 5. Kościół pw. Matki Bożej

Różańcowej w Bykowie

– rekonstrukcja pierwotnej formy

kościoła (XVI w.),

elewacja północna

(oprac. M. Kumorowicz-Brzeska,

U. Schaaf, M. Prarat, D. Jagiełło)

40 Ulrich Schaaf, Maciej Prarat, Daria Jagiełło, Magdalena Kumorowicz-Brzeska

level). At the northern post, a fragment of one of them has

been preserved, marking the lower level of the course. Be-

hind the board nailed to the lintel of the door to the pul-

pit, the rail of the next level is visible. Conrmation of the

presence and possible arrangement of the lower diagonal

stieners was not possible owing to lack of data

It can be assumed that the western frame was brought

into being in a similar way – currently, it is most strong-

ly transformed, integrally connected with the structure of

the eastern wall of the tower (an element of the church

wall frame extended towards the north and south), as evi-

denced by the mortises, and pegged tenon joints preserved

in the corner posts on the outside. The lower stiening

of the frame between the northern and southern pairs of

posts could have been pairs of scissor braces, which are

probably hidden by the present V-shaped “structure” (tim-

ber-cladding

(Fig. 6).

The transverse stiening of the internal frames con-

sisted of two extreme posts of longitudinal (main) bonds,

which were connected at the top with a tie beam resting

on the upper plate of the northern and southern frames

and with a rail located approximately 0.50 m below. The

structure was stiened by three pairs of symmetrical pass-

ing braces inclined inwards, running from the main post,

through the rails, to the entablature, as evidenced by the

preserved empty mortises in the tie beams (access from the

roof structure level) (Fig. 7). On the longitudinal axis of

the nave, resting on the rails stretched between the posts of

the internal frames, there was a binder that served as a sup-

port for the tie beams. Their proling suggests that they

The reconstruction was made, on the basis, among others, of

fragments of the structure preserved in the choir and as an analogy to the

churches in Pracze Odrzańskie and Swojczyce.

We do not know if the bay was divided by an intermediate post.

Fig. 6. Church of Our Lady of the Rosary in Byków,

reconstruction of the original form of the church (16

century),

western elevation

(elaborated M. Kumorowicz-Brzeska, U. Schaaf, M. Prarat, D. Jagiełło)

Il. 6. Kościół pw. Matki Bożej Różańcowej w Bykowie

– rekonstrukcja pierwotnej formy kościoła (XVI w.), elewacja zachodnia

(oprac. M. Kumorowicz-Brzeska, U. Schaaf, M. Prarat, D. Jagiełło)

Fig. 7. Church of Our Lady

of the Rosary in Byków, the end

of the brace connecting with

the entablature of the body (red)

and the empty mortise after

the lap joint of the king strut

frame (green)

(photo by M. Prarat, 2022)

Il. 7. Kościół pw. Matki Bożej

Różańcowej w Bykowie

– zakończenie miecza

łączącego się z belkowaniem

korpusu (kolor czerwony)

oraz puste gniazdo po nakładce

ramy storczykowej (kolor

zielony) (fot. M. Prarat, 2022)

Architecture and building technology of the 16

-century half-timbered church in Byków 41

were visible from below – the interior was probably cov-

ered with a at ceiling installed at the same height above

the nave and the choir.

The choir was closed on three sides. The north and

south wall bonds were built as two-piece structures with

the western longitudinal part and the eastern diagonal part.

There were two main posts in both walls, in the longitu-

dinal one with three intermediate posts, and in the diago-

nal part with single ones. The lower panels were stiened

by passing braces arranged as in the longitudinal frames.

This arrangement is preserved and partially visible in the

southern auxiliary room and at the level of the northern

patrons’ box.

The transverse stiening of the choir bonds was proba-

bly limited to the short upper braces (main post–tie beam),

which are now preserved under the timber cladding. Ow-

ing to the complete reconstruction of the wall, there are no

data on the eastern frame.

The original tie-beams were based on the longitudinal

walls of the body and the choir (north-south arrangement).

The last pair of beams from the eastern side above the

choir was probably signicantly shorter than the others

(currently the length of the penultimate one is 4.65 cm)

owing to its three-sided closure.

The roof structure above the body of the nave consist-

ed of 13 trusses: it was a king strut structure with truss-

es reduced longitudinally and transversely (a full truss in

two variants and an incomplete truss, a king strut in every

third truss). The structure of the truss above the choir was

brought about in a similar way. It was characterized by

a smaller span and consisted of ve trusses (Fig. 8).

During the construction, three basic types of trusses

were used: king strut type in variant 1. – a truss with a king

strut suspended probably from the ridge

and on a pair of

up passing braces; two-collar beam, with a pair of down

braces, located in every third truss; king post in variant 2.

– two-collar truss with three rails, probably with two pairs

of scissor braces, up passing braces, and down braces as

in the full version, located at the gable walls of the nave

body; reduced – two-collar truss. Two levels of rails were

stretched between the trusses. The longitudinal stiening,

next to the ground plate and two rows of rails, consisted

of St Andrew’s crosses connecting the ground plate of the

king strut frame with a king strut.

Because of the extension to include the side matronea

and as a consequence of the later work, the rafters of the

roof structure now do not now lie on tie beams of two

types: the internal entablature of the original structure and

the secondary entablature located above the matronea. The

design of the truss itself was also signicantly changed.

However, numerous original elements (including rafters,

fragments of the king strut and its ground plate) were pre-

served and relocated and were incorporated into the current

structure. Thanks to the clear carpentry marks and the type

and processing of the building material used, it was possi-

ble to identify them, and the mortises inside them made the

reconstruction of the original shape of the roof structure.

The method of hanging the king strut has not been fully recog-

nized. It is known that the two-piece collar beams were connected to it

with a tenon joint and, therefore, did not suspend the element.

Fig. 8. Church of Our Lady

of the Rosary in Byków,

reconstruction of the original

form of the church (16

century),

longitudinal cross-section

(elaborated by

M. Kumorowicz-Brzeska,

U. Schaaf, M. Prarat, D. Jagiełło)

Il. 8. Kościół pw. Matki Bożej

Różańcowej w Bykowie

– rekonstrukcja pierwotnej formy

kościoła (XVI w.),

przekrój podłużny

(oprac. M. Kumorowicz-Brzeska,

U. Schaaf, M. Prarat, D. Jagiełło)

42 Ulrich Schaaf, Maciej Prarat, Daria Jagiełło, Magdalena Kumorowicz-Brzeska

The tower consisted of a square-shaped shaft and a cop -

ing, the original form of which is unknown (no records). Its

structure was created by two multi-storey structures – the

lower part (storeys I and II) and the upper part (storeys III,

IV, and V), composed of three longitudinal frames (north-

ern, southern, and middle) and three transverse frames

(eastern, western, and middle) (Fig. 6). This original struc-

ture has survived in an almost complete form (loss mainly

at the second storey level) – only later it was reinforced

(mainly by adding frames). Currently, identiable layers

are visible.

The bonds of the perimeter walls were created analo-

gously (dierences in the arrangement of braces and passing

braces). Each of them was formed by a pair of corner posts

and a middle post (which was also the edge post of the mid-

dle frame), running from the ground plate to the upper plate.

The posts of the lower part (I and II) reached from the

church oor to the upper plate

, with probably four rows of

rails placed between them. The longitudinal (northern and

southern) walls of the lower part of the tower were proba-

bly stiened with passing braces as in the body. These ele-

ments, however, were probably slightly longer than those in

the body and ran to about half the height of the lower part.

This is evidenced by the mortises of the northern frame:

traces of the pegged notched lap joint on the central (dou-

ble-sided) and eastern (single-sided) posts. The structure on

the second oor level was stiened by two pairs of passing

braces inclined inwards (corner post–rail 4.–upper plate) in

the longitudinal bonds and a pair inclined outwards (mid-

dle post–rail 4.–upper plate) in the eastern frame. Owing

to the tight construction of the elements and the removal of

a large portion of stieners and almost the entire western

frame, there is no detailed information on some of the tech-

niques used. Nor did the timber framing on the western

outside frame make possible the tracing of the mortises on

the upper plate of the frame that could conrm or eliminate

the thesis of a solution analogous to the preserved longitu-

dinal or transverse (eastern) bonds.

The ground plate of the upper part (III–V) rested di-

rectly on the upper plate of the lower part (I and II) in the

transverse frames and on the entablature in the longitudinal

frames. Six rows of rails were stretched between the posts.

Individual parts of the bonds were stiened with passing

braces (the lower ones additionally strengthened the frame

between the lower and upper parts), less often with braces.

The northern and southern frames (III–V) were stiened

at the bottom and top with St Andrew’s crosses (spanned

between the upper plate and the ground plate /

upper plate

and the corner/middle post, through two levels of rails).

Dierent stieners were used in the lower part of the north-

ern frame in the form of two pairs of passing braces: lon-

ger, steep ones, inclined inwards (corner posts of the lower

part – upper plate– ground plate – rails 1, 2 – middle post)

and shorter, running at, inclined outwards (middle post

of the lower part – upper plate – jetty bressumer – rail 1

– corner post).

The northern frame upper plate, like the ground plate of the up-

per part, was extended towards the east (into the roof structure section).

The eastern frame (III–V) was stiened at the bottom

with a pair of short passing braces (lower storey upper

plate– jetty bressumer– middle post) and a pair of short

braces (middle post – rail 2.), above it with a pair of passing

braces constituting the rafters of the extreme roof structure

frame (leading through rails 4 and 5), which were connect-

ed to the central post by a pair of short passing braces in-

clined outwards. In the upper part is the last pair of passing

braces (corner post – rail 6 – upper plate).

The western frame (III–V) was stiened at the bottom

with two pairs of St Andrew’s crosses (lower storey up-

per plate – jetty bressumer–rail 2–corner/middle post) and

single, short passing braces inclined outwards (upper plate

– jetty bressumer–corner post), above with a pair of passing

braces inclined outwards (middle post–rail 3 and 4–corner

post). In the upper part, the last pair of passing braces in-

clined inwards (corner/middle post–rail 6– upper plate).

The central frames (longitudinal and transverse) had

a partially dierent structure from the peripheral frames.

In the transverse frame, two double levels of rails were

stretched between the posts – the pairs were connected by

two short posts located near the central axis (they held the

perpendicular transom of the second of the central frames

on the sides). Additional stiening was provided by pairs of

symmetrically arranged passing braces: two scissor brac-

es each in the lower section (connecting the post and both

pairs of rails at the bottom and top) and single scissor brac-

es in the upper section (connecting the post and both pairs

of rails at the bottom). The longitudinal frame used three

doubled rail levels. The lower part was stiened similarly

to the transverse frame

. Additional stiening was provid-

ed by asymmetrically placed passing braces.

Type of building material used

and its processing

The church in its 16

-century form was built mostly of

oak wood. This is the material used entirely for the con-

struction of the roof structure and the structure of the tow-

er. The walls of the nave and the choir, which were only

partially examined in this respect owing to dicult access

to the structure, were made of oak.

Only a whole tree with dierent cross-sections was used

(dimensions for preserved elements), as for the rail of the

upper level of the western frame: 25 × 21.5 cm, entablature

(its dimensions vary between 20–24 cm and 20–27 cm),

upper plates of the longitudinal wall bonds of the nave: 21

× 20 cm (north) and 23 × 19 cm (south), king struts measur-

ing 17–19 × 22 cm, or tower rails 15–18 cm × 15.5–22 cm.

The building material used for the tower posts has the

largest cross-sections: 20–23 × 20–30 cm. The most varied

seem to be the rafter dimensions: 12–20 × 14–19 cm and

oblique elements stiening the tower structure 13.5–16 ×

18–22 cm for the passing braces and braces.

The building material was processed using traditional

methods – with an axe and an adze. The elements were

Missing eastern upper passing brace and a possible trace of it in

the form of a mortise.

Architecture and building technology of the 16

-century half-timbered church in Byków 43

initially logged with an axe, which left notches on their

sur face, transverse to the side edge. Then the surface

was smoothed with an adze: traces in the form of slightly

rounded notches, running almost parallel to the edge.

Almost all the tie beams are chamferred, mostly on both

sides. The carpenters used one-sided proling for the out-

ermost elements of the body entablature from the inside

and in every third tie beam (no proling on the timber

framing side of the transverse frame

Timber framing sides

and carpenter’s assembly marking system

The timber framing side is the side on which carpen-

ters made bonds when framing the individual longitudi-

nal, transverse, and horizontal bonds on the carpenter’s

bench. After test-connecting a given frame, they marked

all the elements with carpenter’s marks to facilitate their

ecient assembly during the erection of the roof structure.

The structural elements, often having varied cross-sec-

tions, are generally located in one plane on the timber

framing side.

Unfortunately, owing to the few marks found (the walls

of the nave, choir, and of the tower), as well as the lack of

access to the elements or the external sides of the timber

framing of the peripheral walls, it was not possible to rec-

ognize the full system. Nevertheless, the information col-

lected makes it possible for us to draw certain conclusions.

During the construction of the church, the carpenters

mostly consistently used Roman numerals for the wall and

roof structure connections, with a modication in the form

of triangles. These marks were hard-made (with an axe or

chisel).

The bonds of the nave body and of the choir were

timber framed from the outside: the western frame from

the west, the eastern frame from the east, etc. The internal

stiening frames were timber framed from the east

. The

use of the method of marking elements identied on other

structures also in the case of the body is conrmed by the

single sign found on the frame structure: “three” [ ] to

mark the eastern passing brace of the third post from the

west of the main northern frame.

The tie beams of the body were marked from the top,

at their southern edges – and numbered from west to east,

from (probably) 1 to 13. Although no marking was found

on the rst four beams from the west, the fth one has the

Roman numeral V, the sixth one – V and the seventh one

– V (slightly distorted layout), with not fully legible marks

the following ones, up to the tenth, marked X, the elev-

enth X and the twelfth X . On the last eastern beam of

the body there is a visible mark X applied from the east.

No marks were found on the choir entablature

Eastern from the west, western from the east.

Lack of access makes it impossible to determine whether the

proling is on the middle section of the element.

This is visible from the level of the tie beams, on the roof struc-

ture oor.

The elements are currently hidden by the formwork introduced

on the roof structure.

Owing to the secondary use and relocation of the roof

structure elements, there is no basis for reconstructing its

original system: the numbering of the rafters is strongly

distorted, e.g., the northern rafter of the current frame 14

is marked V , while the neighbouring rafter of frame 15

– X . Part of the double standing truss also consists of

elements used secondarily, such as one of the northern

passing braces of the transverse frame – X , or the eastern

brace of the second post from the east – . Among the

markings using Roman numerals with triangles, there were

no markings that would help distinguish the north from the

south side within the truss.

On a brace stretched between the upper plate and the

ground plate of the bell structure, in the section extended

above the nave, the mark X was found.

In the case of the tower, the transverse bonds were tim-

ber framed from the west, and the longitudinal ties from

the south, except for the northern frame which was timber

framed from the north (Fig. 8). This is where the greatest di-

versity in the methods of marking elements can be seen: Ro-

man numerals and modied Roman numerals supplemented

with: a triangle (e.g., ), a semicircular notch (e.g., ), or

horizontal lines. Single elements were connected by match-

mark

. The sanguine marking was found on two ele ments.

The marks deciphered did not make it possible to un-

derstand their system. The structural elements of the lower

part (I and II) of the tower shaft were probably marked

mainly with Roman numerals. The numbering in the east-

ern frame was applied from the south: the upper rails were

numbered individually (marked on the southern part of the

element) – II in the southern one, and III in the northern

one

. Both passing braces were marked III (3

column) at

the connection point with the central post.

The structural elements of the upper part (III–V) of the

shaft are marked mainly with Roman numerals and trian-

gles or semicircular notches referring to them, which is

why the structural components at the junction of both parts

sometimes have double markings, such as the upper rail of

the rst level of the central longitudinal frame marked II

(like the passing brace that connects to it) and .

It appears that the marking of the eastern and central lon-

gitudinal frame elements is limited to dierentiating the left

and right sides. In the eastern frame, the elements located

on the north side are marked with the Roman numeral I,

and the elements on the south side of the frame – with the

modied Roman numeral . The passing braces converg-

ing on the central post, such as the post itself, were marked

on both sides and supplemented with a matchmark. The

upper plate is marked on both sides in accordance with

the adopted scheme. However, this scheme is not applied

completely consistently – it is also applied to the rst

rail from the north

. In the central longitudinal line, the

A line-shaped incision made at the junction of two or more el-

ements.

This conrms the thesis of the extension of the inner western

frame of the body, of which the tower frame is an integral element, by

one panel to the north and one panel to the south.

At this level, both rails have the same marking, which is why the south-

ern element at the frame is additionally marked with a matchmark (rail – post).

44 Ulrich Schaaf, Maciej Prarat, Daria Jagiełło, Magdalena Kumorowicz-Brzeska

mark was applied to the elements in the western part of

the frame, while in the eastern part, they were marked with

the sign . There is no consistency here either (or was the

sign not fully legible?) – on one of the long passing braces

getting through rails 2 there is a Roman numeral I. On the

eastern post there is the marking – . There was no system

for dierentiating elements depending on height.

The northern frame elements were probably marked

from the west on the middle post – , and on the east-

ern post – . The eastern post was additionally marked

with a Roman numeral I, only oblique /. However, the

rail stretched between them – . Since the southern

frame elements were marked using the same modication

of the Roman numeral, a matchmark ˄ was used. The num-

bering is from the east on the middle post – ˄ , and on

the eastern post – ˄ . The rail located between them is

marked ˄ .

Although no hard-made assembly marks were found

on the central transverse frame, there are preserved marks

made in sanguine on two short posts of the lower part

stretched between the rails, however, they are not legible.

Carpentry joints

Three basic carpentry joints (with possible variants)

were used to build the wall bonds and the roof structure

with the tower body: mortise and tenon joints, lap joints,

and cogged joints.

Mortise and tenon joints were mainly used to connect

perpendicular elements – posts with ground plates and up-

per plates (bonds preserved in the tower structure. In the

body there is no ground plate or there is a built-up upper

plate) or usually in the pegged variant of rails with main

posts (body and tower). A mortise was also identied in

the ground plate of the king strut, which is how the middle

post of the roof structure was connected to it. An oblique

mortise and tenon joint was used to set the rafters in the

tie beams (mortises are visible in the extreme parts of the

upper surface of the elements).

The lap joint comes in three basic versions: perpendic-

ular lap joint, an oblique lap joint, a lap joint where one el-

ement intersects with another element, all these were deter-

mined by the arrangement of structural elements relative to

each other, and in several varieties – division according to

shape, mostly pegged joints. A straight lap joint was used to

connect, among others, the ground plates of the longitudi

nal and transverse frames (tower) or, less frequently, a pass-

ing brace with a rail to which the tower is attached

. The

notched

lap joint was used for connecting passing braces

with posts (body and tower

), passing braces with an up-

per plate (tower) or braces/passing braces with tie beams

(join

t in the beam on the side without the chamfer). An al-

ternative connection for the passing braces with the main

post or upper plate (nave and tower) is a single dovetail lap

joint, which is also found, among others, when connecting

short posts with the rails of the central bonds of the tow-

er (Fig. 9). Crossing lap joints were used, for example, to

connect rails with the stud of the bonding of the oblique

walls of the choir (perpendicular elements) or passing

braces that pass through the jetty bressumer or the upper

plate of the lower storey (tower). The more commonly

used variant is the notched lap – a connection of a passing

brace and a rail (body and tower) or scissor passing braces

(tower

). Where St Andrew’s crosses intersect on the rail,

double lap joints were used as in the passing braces of the

upper stiening of the northern frame of the tower.

Cogged joints come in several variants. The single

cogged joint was used to connect, among others, the tie

beams with the nave upper plate or the upper plate of the

lower part of the tower shaft with the ground plate of the

upper part of the tower shaft. It was also used to connect

parts of the upper plates with the tie beams (body) rest-

ing on them. The middle notch was used to connect the tie

beams with the choir upper plate, and the cross notch was

used to connect the rails of two central frames perpendic-

ular to each other (tower). The upper plates of the longitu-

dinal and transverse frames of the lower storey of the tower,

similarly to the upper plate with the tie beams, are con-

nected with a cogged joint protruding approximately 8 cm

into the centre of the axis. The jetty bressumners with tie

E.g., connecting the ends of the upper passing braces with the

lower rail of the rst pair in the transverse central frame.

Upper pair of passing braces of the lower level of the upper part

in the transverse frame – double-pegged.

The north frame also shows an example of a double notch.

Fig. 9. Church of Our Lady of the Rosary in Byków, list of carpentry joints – lap joints:

a) double dovetail lap joint-shaped, b) single dovetail lap joint-shaped, c) double-notched (photo by U. Schaaf, 2022)

Il. 9. Kościół pw. Matki Bożej Różańcowej w Bykowie – zestawienie złącz ciesielskich – nakładki:

a) o kształcie jaskółczego ogona, b) o kształcie połowy jaskółczego ogona, c) zacięta podwójnie (fot. U. Schaaf, 2022)

a b c

Architecture and building technology of the 16

-century half-timbered church in Byków 45

beams (tower) and the upper plate of the longitudinal and

transverse frame of the upper part of the tower are connect-

ed to each other with a single dovetail lap cogged joint.

A pair of eastern frame passing braces (probably like

roof structure rafters) are connected to each other by scarf

joint bridled.

The material used to fill the half-timbered panels

and its colours

The panels of the half-timbered construction of the

walls of the nave, choir, and partially the lower part of the

tower, had a clay lling (clay with cha), on wooden, ver-

tically mounted staves, which were inserted into recess-

es (grooves) cut in the rails. The original lling has been

preserved, among other places, under the timber-cladding

of the northern matroneum. In the northern and southern

lower storeys of the tower, longitudinal recesses for staves

are visible in the rails, conrming the use of the same solu-

tion. The inll of the half-timbered panels was probably

whitewashed (or plastered). The wooden structural ele-

ments were painted grey, as evidenced by the preserved

fragments of painting.

Summary

As a result of the research, it was possible to determine

almost completely the original form of the church at the

time of its construction in the mid-16

century. On the ba-

sis of the comparative analysis, the probable form of the

tower’s coping, the location and shape of the doors, and

the size of the windows were also determined. Importantly,

the research has proved that despite numerous transforma-

tions in the current structure of the church, a large part of

the structure of the original church has still been preserved.

It was a single-nave church with a narrowed and three-sid-

ed chancel closed on the eastern side, where in each part

(nave and chancel) two main rows of posts (longitudinal ex-

ternal bonds) supported the roof structure. Only the square-

shaped tower was characterized by three longitudinal and

transverse bonds (two at each end and one in the middle).

Fig. 10. Churches: a) of St. Jacek in Wrocław (Swojczyce), built in 1537, expanded in 1630–1631 and 1889–1890, condition before 1934,

b) in Świniary, built in 1570, condition from 1878, not retained,

c) of the Sacred Heart of Jesus in Godzięcin, built in 1583, condition in the 1990s

(sources: Burgemeister, Grundmann 1934, 159; Degen 1965, 452; photo by U. Schaaf, 2022)

Il. 10. Kościoły: a) pw. św. Jacka we Wrocławiu (Swojczyce) powstały w 1537 r., rozbudowany w latach 1630–1631 oraz 1889–1890, stan przed 1934 r.,

b) w Świniarach powstały w 1570 r., stan z 1878 r., niezachowany,

c) pw. Najświętszego Serca Pana Jezusa w Godzięcinie powstały w 1583 r., stan w latach 90. XX w.

(źródła: Burgemeister, Grundmann 1934, 159; Degen 1965, 452; fot. U. Schaaf, 2022)

The posts divided the peripheral walls of the church

into structural bays, while the studs divided these bays into

segments. In turn, the ground plates, several rows of rails,

and the upper plates divided these segments into panels

in which doors or windows were placed, or which were

lled with clay mixed with straw on staves. The walls were

stiened in the nave and the chancel by two rows of single

passing braces located above the ground plates and below

the upper plates, and in the case of the tower, by either sin-

gle passing braces or scissor braces forming St Andrew’s

crosses. The main body of the church was crowned with

a reduced king strut structure.

The main building material is whole oak, pre-treated

with an axe and then smoothed with an adze. The cross-sec-

tions were adapted to the function of the elements in the

spatial load-bearing structure. The system of carpentry as-

sembly marks is fully identiable, but marks made with

dierent tools and in dierent shapes made it possible for

carpenters to subordinate easily each element to the correct

frame and the correct place in that frame.

In the case of structural elements connected at right an-

gles in one plane, mortise and tenon joint were generally

used (e.g., a post with an upper plate), and only in the case

of crossing of such elements was a lap joint used (e.g.,

a stud with a rail). The oblique elements were connected to

the vertical and horizontal elements mainly using lap joints

of various shapes (e.g., a passing brace with a ground plate,

a rail, and a post), which enabled their assembly after the

main load-bearing structure had been set up. In various

variants, a cogged joint was used to connect two structural

elements not in one plane, but superimposed on each other

(e.g., a truss beam on a cap).

In the context of the Silesian Protestant half-timbered ar-

chitecture of the 16

century, the original church in Byków

is a church that is typical of that period and region, owing

to the architectural and construction solutions used. Other

examples include churches in Swojczyce (1537), Winiary

(1570), Godzięcin (1583), and Masłowo (1592) (Fig. 10).

Translated by

Edward Maliszewski

a b c

46 Ulrich Schaaf, Maciej Prarat, Daria Jagiełło, Magdalena Kumorowicz-Brzeska

Streszczenie

Architektura i technika budowlana XVI-wiecznego kościoła o konstrukcji szkieletowej w Bykowie

W 2022 r. przeprowadzone zostały badania architektoniczne dawnego kościoła ewangelickiego, obecnie kościoła pw. Matki Bożej Różańcowej

w Bykowie (gm. Długołęka, pow. wrocławski), datowanego na 1574 r. Kościół na przestrzeni kolejnych stuleci podlegał znaczącej rozbudowie

i przebudowie, które diametralnie zmieniły jego formę.

W artykule zaprezentowano wyniki przeprowadzonych badań w odniesieniu do pierwotnej formy kościoła, w szczególności zastosowanej w XVI w.

techniki budowlanej oraz rekonstrukcji jego prawdopodobnego wyglądu po wzniesieniu. Badaniami objęto układ konstrukcyjny, rodzaj wykorzy-

stanego budulca i jego obróbkę, strony odwiązania i system ciesielskich znaków montażowych, zastosowane złącza ciesielskie, a także materiał

wykorzystany do wypełnienia pól szkieletu i jego kolorystykę.

Na ich podstawie udało się ustalić, że pierwotny kościół wzniesiono w konstrukcji szkieletowej, składał się z części nawowej (korpusu nawowe-

go) oraz wydłużonego, trójbocznie zamkniętego chóru od wschodu i wieży od zachodu. Korpus i chór kryte były dachami dwuspadowymi o więźbie

storczykowej. Duża część z tej konstrukcji zachowała się w obecnej strukturze świątyni.

Słowa kluczowe: kościół, XVI w., konstrukcja szkieletowa, badania architektoniczne, Byków

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